英语习语的配对联结式学习研究
摘要
自从“配对联结式学习”这个概念提出以后,二语习得领域中配对联结式学习频频受到关注。“配对联结式学习”作为一种记忆策略简单来讲是指把单词、数字或音节等成对学习,使学习者看到其中一个时,便记起另一个的一种联想学习方法。该方法被广泛使用于诸多领域,如心理学,医学,语言学习等。二语习得领域中的相关研究主要关注单词的配对联结式学习,而很少有人研究像习语这样的多个词的配对联结式学习。习语的形象性也对习语的配对联结式学习产生影响,但探究这种影响的研究还较少。该领域的大部分研究只设计了立即后测,因而关于长时保持力方面的证据有待更多的研究。
本文基于Steinel et al. (2007)的研究,旨在探究在立即后测和延时后测中,二语习语的学习条件(产出性或是接受性)与测试形式(产出性或是接受性)的关系,同时还研究了习语的形象性对习语配对联结式学习的影响。本文主要研究以下两个问题:
(1)二语习语的学习条件(产出性或是接受性)与测试形式(产出性或是接受性)存在什么关系?
(2)习语形象性如何影响学习者对二语习语的理解和学习?
来自江苏省某职业技术学院的88名大学新生参与了本研究。研究借助于社会科学统计软件包SPSS 13.0对所得数据进行定量分析,同时对问卷中的数据进行定性分析来进一步阐释定量分析的结果。主要的研究发现概括如下:
(1)当学习和测试的条件一致时,学习者在立即产出性后测中表现更佳。而在立即接受性后测中,接受性学习条件下的学习者并不比产出性学习条件下的学习者表现更佳。在延时后测中两者的关系不明显。另外,学习条件的难度并不能促进习语的长时保持。
(2)二语习语的形象性可以促进习语的学习,这种影响在接受性立即后测中更加明显。然而形象性有助于产出性学习条件下的测试,对接受性学习条件下的测试却无影响。
基于上述研究发现,作者总结了几点教学启示,接着指出了研究中的不足,以及对后续研究的建议。本研究对英语教学和研究有着一定的启示意义。
Since the concept of“paired-associate learning (PAL)”was coined, studies of PAL in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) have received frequent attention. PAL, as a memory strategy, simply means learning to respond with one member of a pair (pair of words, numbers or syllables, etc.) when given the other member of the pair. It has been widely used in many fields, such as psychology, medical science, language learning, etc. The main focus of the related studies in SLA field is on PAL of individual words, but few studies have been conducted on the multiword units like idioms in PAL context. Idiom figurativeness is also regarded as an internal factor affecting PAL of L2 idioms, while little work has been conducted to uncover the effects of figurativeness on PAL of L2 idiom. The related studies mostly design an immediate post test, so further evidence about long-term retention is needed.
The present study, based on Steinel et al.’s study (2007), tries to make an exploration on the relationship between the L2 idiom learning conditions (productive or receptive) and the testing formats (productive or receptive) on both immediate and delayed post tests. In the meantime, the effects of internal factor――figurativeness of the L2 idioms――are also considered. The following two questions are addressed in this study:
1. What is the relationship between the L2 idiom learning conditions (productive or receptive) and the testing formats (productive or receptive)?
2. How does the internal factor in terms of figurativeness affect learners’understanding and learning of L2 idioms?
88 freshmen from one institute in Jiangsu Province were involved in this study. The quantitative data were resorted to Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 13.0, and the qualitative analysis of data from the questionnaire was supposed to support and explain the quantitative results drawn from the quantitative data. The major findings can be summarized as follows:
1. When the idiom learning condition is in accordance with the condition of idiom testing, learners’performance on the immediate productive test is significantly better. However, on the immediate receptive test, participants who learn receptively don’t perform considerably better than those who learn productively. The relationship between learning condition and testing condition is not significantly obvious on both productive and receptive delayed post tests. In addition, more difficult learning condition does not promote retention.
2. The L2 idiom figurativeness facilitates idiom learning on both productive and receptive immediate post tests, and the effect is stronger on the receptive immediate post test. When it comes to the learning condition, the figurativeness does not facilitate performance in the receptive learning condition. However, it promotes performance in the productive learning condition.
In view of the findings, some pedagogical implications are discussed, followed by some limitations and suggestions for future study. The present study sheds some light on English learning and teaching, and EFL research as well.
本文基于Steinel et al. (2007)的研究,旨在探究在立即后测和延时后测中,二语习语的学习条件(产出性或是接受性)与测试形式(产出性或是接受性)的关系,同时还研究了习语的形象性对习语配对联结式学习的影响。本文主要研究以下两个问题:
(1)二语习语的学习条件(产出性或是接受性)与测试形式(产出性或是接受性)存在什么关系?
(2)习语形象性如何影响学习者对二语习语的理解和学习?
来自江苏省某职业技术学院的88名大学新生参与了本研究。研究借助于社会科学统计软件包SPSS 13.0对所得数据进行定量分析,同时对问卷中的数据进行定性分析来进一步阐释定量分析的结果。主要的研究发现概括如下:
(1)当学习和测试的条件一致时,学习者在立即产出性后测中表现更佳。而在立即接受性后测中,接受性学习条件下的学习者并不比产出性学习条件下的学习者表现更佳。在延时后测中两者的关系不明显。另外,学习条件的难度并不能促进习语的长时保持。
(2)二语习语的形象性可以促进习语的学习,这种影响在接受性立即后测中更加明显。然而形象性有助于产出性学习条件下的测试,对接受性学习条件下的测试却无影响。
基于上述研究发现,作者总结了几点教学启示,接着指出了研究中的不足,以及对后续研究的建议。本研究对英语教学和研究有着一定的启示意义。
Since the concept of“paired-associate learning (PAL)”was coined, studies of PAL in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) have received frequent attention. PAL, as a memory strategy, simply means learning to respond with one member of a pair (pair of words, numbers or syllables, etc.) when given the other member of the pair. It has been widely used in many fields, such as psychology, medical science, language learning, etc. The main focus of the related studies in SLA field is on PAL of individual words, but few studies have been conducted on the multiword units like idioms in PAL context. Idiom figurativeness is also regarded as an internal factor affecting PAL of L2 idioms, while little work has been conducted to uncover the effects of figurativeness on PAL of L2 idiom. The related studies mostly design an immediate post test, so further evidence about long-term retention is needed.
The present study, based on Steinel et al.’s study (2007), tries to make an exploration on the relationship between the L2 idiom learning conditions (productive or receptive) and the testing formats (productive or receptive) on both immediate and delayed post tests. In the meantime, the effects of internal factor――figurativeness of the L2 idioms――are also considered. The following two questions are addressed in this study:
1. What is the relationship between the L2 idiom learning conditions (productive or receptive) and the testing formats (productive or receptive)?
2. How does the internal factor in terms of figurativeness affect learners’understanding and learning of L2 idioms?
88 freshmen from one institute in Jiangsu Province were involved in this study. The quantitative data were resorted to Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) 13.0, and the qualitative analysis of data from the questionnaire was supposed to support and explain the quantitative results drawn from the quantitative data. The major findings can be summarized as follows:
1. When the idiom learning condition is in accordance with the condition of idiom testing, learners’performance on the immediate productive test is significantly better. However, on the immediate receptive test, participants who learn receptively don’t perform considerably better than those who learn productively. The relationship between learning condition and testing condition is not significantly obvious on both productive and receptive delayed post tests. In addition, more difficult learning condition does not promote retention.
2. The L2 idiom figurativeness facilitates idiom learning on both productive and receptive immediate post tests, and the effect is stronger on the receptive immediate post test. When it comes to the learning condition, the figurativeness does not facilitate performance in the receptive learning condition. However, it promotes performance in the productive learning condition.
In view of the findings, some pedagogical implications are discussed, followed by some limitations and suggestions for future study. The present study sheds some light on English learning and teaching, and EFL research as well.
引文
Arnaud, P. J. L., & Savignon, S. (1997). Rare words, complex lexical units and the advanced learner. Second Language Vocabulary Acquisition: A Rationale for Pedagog. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Bahrick, H. P., & Hall, L. K. (1991). Lifetime maintenance of high school mathematics. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 120, 20-33.
Battig, W. F. (1979). The flexibility of human memory. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Beors, F., Demecheleer, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2004). Etmological elaboration as a strategy for learning idioms. In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition and Testing. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Bortfeld, H. (2002). What native and non-native speakers’images for idioms tell as about figurative language. In R.R. Heredia & J. Altarriba (Eds.), Bilingual Sentence Processing. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Cao, X. L. [曹雪亮], (1997). Four Simple Tests about the Elder’s Memory. Unpublished master thesis, Beijing University, Beijing, China.
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991) Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Memory: Coding processes. In A. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Crothers, E., & Suppes, P. (1967). Experiments in Second-language Learning. San Diego: Academic Press.
De Groot, A. M. B. (2006). Effects of stimulus characteristics and background music on foreign language vocabulary learning and forgetting. Language Learning, 56, 463-506.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Hoeks, J. C. J. (1995). The development of bilingual memory:Evidence from word translation by trilinguals. Language Learning, 45, 683-724.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Keijzer, R. (2000). What is hard to learn is easy to forget: The roles of word concreteness, cognate status, and word frequency in foreign-language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 50, 1-56.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Poot, R. (1997). Word translation at three levels of proficiency in a second language: The ubiquitous involvement of conceptual memory. Language Learning, 47, 215-264.
Deese, J., & Hulse, S. H. (1967). The Psychology of Learning. (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Erman, B., & Warren, B. (2000). The idiom principle and the open choice principle. Text, 20, 29-62.
Ellis, N. C., & Beaton, A. (1993). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43, 559-617.
Fraser, B. (1970). Idioms within a Transformational Grammar. Foundations of Language, 6: 22-42.
Gallo, D. A., Meadow, N. G., Johnson, E. L., & Foster, K. T. (2008). Deep levels of processing elicit a distinctiveness heuristic: Evidence from the criterial recollection task. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 1095-1111.
Gibbs, R. (1992). What do idioms really mean? Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 485-506.
Grant, L.E., & Bauer, L. (2004). Criteria for re-defining idioms: Are we barking up the wrong tree? Applied Linguistics, 25, 38-61.
Griffin, G., & Harley, T. A. (1996). List learning of second language vocabulary. Applied Psycholinguistics, 17, 443-460.
He, Z. Z. [何子章], (2001). Characteristic Features of English Idioms. Unpublished master thesis, Xidian University, Xi’an, China.
Hornby, A. S. (2004). Oxford Advanced Learners’English-Chinese Dictionary (6th ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 19, 24-44.
Jacoby, L. L., & Craik, F. I. M. (1979). Effects of elaboration of processing at encoding and retrieval: Trace distinctiveness and recovery of initial context. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory. Mahmah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jones, G. V. (1985). Deep dyslexia, imageability, and ease of prediction. Brain and Language, 24, 1-19.
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in tanslation and picture naming: Evidence for asmmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 149-174.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Laufer, B. (2000). Avoidance of idioms in a second language: The effect of L1-L2 degree of similarity. Studia Linguistica, 54, 186-196.
Li, H. T. [李洪涛], (2002).惊讶英语习语.吉林科学技术出版社.
Li, H. T. [李洪涛], (2002).惊讶英语搭配.吉林科学技术出版社.
Li, H., Shu, H., Peng, H., Lei, L., & Xing, A.[李虹,舒华,彭虹,雷霖,邢爱玲], (2006).配对联想学习能力和语音意识在汉语儿童早期阅读中的作用.心理科学, 29 (3), 546-549.
Lightbown, P. M. (2005). Transfer-appropriate processing as a framework for classroom SLA. Available over the Internet at http://www.tc.edu/academic/tesol/SLRF2005/LightbownAbstract.pdf
Lockhart, R. S. & Craik, I. M. (1978). Levels of processing: a reply to Eysenck. British Journal of Psychology, 69, 171-175.
Makkai, A. (1972). Idiom Structure in English. The Hague, Pairs: Mouton.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Education Psychology, 83(4), 484-490.
Mondria, J. A., & Wiersma, B. (2004). Receptive, productive, and receptive + productiveL2 vocabulary learning: What difference does it make? In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language: Section, Acquisition and Testing. Amsterdam: Banjamins.
Moon, R. (1997).Vocabulary connections: Muti-word items in English. Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and Verbal Processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1966). Stimulus and response abstractness, imagery, and meaningfulness, and reported mediators in paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 20, 362-377.
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207-217.
Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E., Jr. (2002). What is learned under different conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 419-440.
Schuyten, M. C. (1906). Experimental approaches to the study of the most common methods in foreign language teaching. In M. P. Steinel, J. H. Hulstijn & W. Steinel, Second language idiom learning in a pared-associate Paradigm. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 29, 449-484.
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Harnishfeger, K. K., & Stowe, R. W. (1988). Context availability and lexical decisions for abstract and concrete words. Journal of Memory and Language, 27. 499-520.
Sousa, D.A. (2006). How the Brain Learns? (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Spears, R.A. & Kirkpatrick, B. (2008). NTC’s English Idioms Dictionary. Central Compilation & Translation Press.
Steinel, M. P., Hulstijn, J. H., & Steinel, W. (2007). Second language idiom learning in a paired-associate Paradigm. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 29, 449-484.
Stoddard, G. D. (1929). An experiment in verbal learning. Journal of EducationalPsychology, 20, 452-457.
Underwood, B. J., & Schulz, R. W. (1960). Meaningfulness and verbal learning. New York: Lippincott.
Weinreich, U. (1969). Problems in the analysis of idioms. In J. Puhvel (ed.) Substance of Structure of Language. 23-81.
Zheng, J. L. et al. [郑金龙等], (2008).参与中文配对词语联想学习记忆的脑区和神经机制——脑磁共振的研究.中国工程科学, 10 (5), 39-45.
Zyzik, E. (2009). Teaching and Learning Idioms: The Big Picture. Available over the Internet at http://clear.msu.edu/clear/newsletter/files/fall2009.pdf
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (2004). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available over the Internet at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfer-appropriate_processing
Bahrick, H. P., & Hall, L. K. (1991). Lifetime maintenance of high school mathematics. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 120, 20-33.
Battig, W. F. (1979). The flexibility of human memory. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Beors, F., Demecheleer, M., & Eyckmans, J. (2004). Etmological elaboration as a strategy for learning idioms. In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language: Selection, Acquisition and Testing. Amsterdam: Benjamins.
Bortfeld, H. (2002). What native and non-native speakers’images for idioms tell as about figurative language. In R.R. Heredia & J. Altarriba (Eds.), Bilingual Sentence Processing. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Cao, X. L. [曹雪亮], (1997). Four Simple Tests about the Elder’s Memory. Unpublished master thesis, Beijing University, Beijing, China.
Clark, J. M., & Paivio, A. (1991) Dual coding theory and education. Educational Psychology Review, 3(3), 149-210.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Craik, F. I. M. (2000). Memory: Coding processes. In A. Kazdin (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Psychology. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Crothers, E., & Suppes, P. (1967). Experiments in Second-language Learning. San Diego: Academic Press.
De Groot, A. M. B. (2006). Effects of stimulus characteristics and background music on foreign language vocabulary learning and forgetting. Language Learning, 56, 463-506.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Hoeks, J. C. J. (1995). The development of bilingual memory:Evidence from word translation by trilinguals. Language Learning, 45, 683-724.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Keijzer, R. (2000). What is hard to learn is easy to forget: The roles of word concreteness, cognate status, and word frequency in foreign-language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 50, 1-56.
De Groot, A. M. B., & Poot, R. (1997). Word translation at three levels of proficiency in a second language: The ubiquitous involvement of conceptual memory. Language Learning, 47, 215-264.
Deese, J., & Hulse, S. H. (1967). The Psychology of Learning. (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Erman, B., & Warren, B. (2000). The idiom principle and the open choice principle. Text, 20, 29-62.
Ellis, N. C., & Beaton, A. (1993). Psycholinguistic determinants of foreign language vocabulary learning. Language Learning, 43, 559-617.
Fraser, B. (1970). Idioms within a Transformational Grammar. Foundations of Language, 6: 22-42.
Gallo, D. A., Meadow, N. G., Johnson, E. L., & Foster, K. T. (2008). Deep levels of processing elicit a distinctiveness heuristic: Evidence from the criterial recollection task. Journal of Memory and Language, 58, 1095-1111.
Gibbs, R. (1992). What do idioms really mean? Journal of Memory and Language, 31, 485-506.
Grant, L.E., & Bauer, L. (2004). Criteria for re-defining idioms: Are we barking up the wrong tree? Applied Linguistics, 25, 38-61.
Griffin, G., & Harley, T. A. (1996). List learning of second language vocabulary. Applied Psycholinguistics, 17, 443-460.
He, Z. Z. [何子章], (2001). Characteristic Features of English Idioms. Unpublished master thesis, Xidian University, Xi’an, China.
Hornby, A. S. (2004). Oxford Advanced Learners’English-Chinese Dictionary (6th ed.). Beijing: The Commercial Press.
Howarth, P. (1998). Phraseology and second language proficiency. Applied Linguistics, 19, 24-44.
Jacoby, L. L., & Craik, F. I. M. (1979). Effects of elaboration of processing at encoding and retrieval: Trace distinctiveness and recovery of initial context. In L. S. Cermak & F. I. M. Craik (Eds.), Levels of Processing in Human Memory. Mahmah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Jones, G. V. (1985). Deep dyslexia, imageability, and ease of prediction. Brain and Language, 24, 1-19.
Kroll, J. F., & Stewart, E. (1994). Category interference in tanslation and picture naming: Evidence for asmmetric connections between bilingual memory representations. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 149-174.
Lakoff, G., & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors we live by. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Laufer, B. (2000). Avoidance of idioms in a second language: The effect of L1-L2 degree of similarity. Studia Linguistica, 54, 186-196.
Li, H. T. [李洪涛], (2002).惊讶英语习语.吉林科学技术出版社.
Li, H. T. [李洪涛], (2002).惊讶英语搭配.吉林科学技术出版社.
Li, H., Shu, H., Peng, H., Lei, L., & Xing, A.[李虹,舒华,彭虹,雷霖,邢爱玲], (2006).配对联想学习能力和语音意识在汉语儿童早期阅读中的作用.心理科学, 29 (3), 546-549.
Lightbown, P. M. (2005). Transfer-appropriate processing as a framework for classroom SLA. Available over the Internet at http://www.tc.edu/academic/tesol/SLRF2005/LightbownAbstract.pdf
Lockhart, R. S. & Craik, I. M. (1978). Levels of processing: a reply to Eysenck. British Journal of Psychology, 69, 171-175.
Makkai, A. (1972). Idiom Structure in English. The Hague, Pairs: Mouton.
Mayer, R. E., & Anderson, R. B. (1991). Animations need narrations: An experimental test of dual-coding hypothesis. Journal of Education Psychology, 83(4), 484-490.
Mondria, J. A., & Wiersma, B. (2004). Receptive, productive, and receptive + productiveL2 vocabulary learning: What difference does it make? In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a Second Language: Section, Acquisition and Testing. Amsterdam: Banjamins.
Moon, R. (1997).Vocabulary connections: Muti-word items in English. Vocabulary: Description, Acquisition and Pedagogy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Paivio, A. (1971). Imagery and Verbal Processes. New York: Holt, Rinehart, & Winston. Paivio, A., Yuille, J. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1966). Stimulus and response abstractness, imagery, and meaningfulness, and reported mediators in paired-associate learning. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 20, 362-377.
Schmidt, R. A., & Bjork, R. A. (1992). New conceptualizations of practice: Common principles in three paradigms suggest new concepts for training. Psychological Science, 3, 207-217.
Schneider, V. I., Healy, A. F., & Bourne, L. E., Jr. (2002). What is learned under different conditions is hard to forget: Contextual interference effects in foreign vocabulary acquisition, retention, and transfer. Journal of Memory and Language, 46, 419-440.
Schuyten, M. C. (1906). Experimental approaches to the study of the most common methods in foreign language teaching. In M. P. Steinel, J. H. Hulstijn & W. Steinel, Second language idiom learning in a pared-associate Paradigm. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 29, 449-484.
Schwanenflugel, P. J., Harnishfeger, K. K., & Stowe, R. W. (1988). Context availability and lexical decisions for abstract and concrete words. Journal of Memory and Language, 27. 499-520.
Sousa, D.A. (2006). How the Brain Learns? (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Spears, R.A. & Kirkpatrick, B. (2008). NTC’s English Idioms Dictionary. Central Compilation & Translation Press.
Steinel, M. P., Hulstijn, J. H., & Steinel, W. (2007). Second language idiom learning in a paired-associate Paradigm. Studies in Second Language Acquisition. 29, 449-484.
Stoddard, G. D. (1929). An experiment in verbal learning. Journal of EducationalPsychology, 20, 452-457.
Underwood, B. J., & Schulz, R. W. (1960). Meaningfulness and verbal learning. New York: Lippincott.
Weinreich, U. (1969). Problems in the analysis of idioms. In J. Puhvel (ed.) Substance of Structure of Language. 23-81.
Zheng, J. L. et al. [郑金龙等], (2008).参与中文配对词语联想学习记忆的脑区和神经机制——脑磁共振的研究.中国工程科学, 10 (5), 39-45.
Zyzik, E. (2009). Teaching and Learning Idioms: The Big Picture. Available over the Internet at http://clear.msu.edu/clear/newsletter/files/fall2009.pdf
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (2004). Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
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