环糊精功能化石墨烯修饰电极在抗癌药物和硝基酚检测中的应用
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摘要
第一章：简要介绍了石墨烯的性质、结构及其纳米复合材料研究进展。综述了抗癌药物阿霉素、氨甲喋呤和环境污染物邻硝基苯酚在药理毒理、分析检测方面的研究,概括了化学修饰电极检测阿霉素、氨甲喋呤和邻硝基苯酚的研究进展。
第二章：以石墨为原料,结合p-环糊精(p-CD),采用湿化学法制备了环糊精功能化石墨烯纳米材料(CD-GNs),并利用紫外-可见光谱(UV)、疏水性、红外光谱(IR)、热重分析(TGA)、X-射线光电子能谱(XPS)、拉曼光谱(Raman Spectroscopy).原子力显微镜(AFM)及交流阻抗测试(EIS)对其进行了表征,结果表明：p-CD能很好吸附在石墨烯表面,制备的石墨烯纳米材料水溶液分散性较好,并具有较强的电化学行为,可应用于传感器的制备。
第三章：利用环糊精功能化石墨烯纳米材料修饰的玻碳电极(CD-GNs/GCE)建立了阿霉素(DOX)的超灵敏检测方法。在优化条件下,CD-GNs/GCE比裸玻碳电极(GCE)测定阿霉素电化学响应增加了26.5倍,在0.1mol·L-1磷酸缓冲液(PBS)(pH=8)中,DOX在Ep=-0.682V(vs.SCE)产生一对氧化还原峰,在10nM～0.2μM范围内峰电流与浓度呈线性关系,线性关系式为:ip(μA)=18.0+236C(μM)(r=0.9981),检测限为0.1nM(S/N=3),RSD=3.9％(n=6),回收率范围为97%-102%,该方法可以应用于尿样中阿霉素浓度的测定。
第四章：研究了氨甲喋呤(MTX)在CD-GNs/GCE的电化学行为,在最佳条件下,CD-GNs/GCE比GCE测定氨甲喋呤电化学响应增加了23.7倍,建立了测定氨甲喋呤的高灵敏方法。在0.1mol·L-1PBS(pH=6)中,MTX在Ep=-0.596V(vs.SCE)产生一对氧化还原峰,峰电流与浓度在0.1μM～1.0μM范围内呈线性关系,线性关系式为：ip(μA)=1.29+67.8C(μM)(r=0.9994),检测限为20nM(S/N=3),RSD=4.7%(n=6),回收率范围为100%-105%,该方法可应用于尿样中氨甲喋呤浓度的测定。
第五章：研究了邻硝基苯酚(O-NP)在CD-GNs修饰玻碳电极的电化学行为,利用循环伏安法研究了pH、富集时间、扫速对邻硝基苯酚浓度测定的影响,结果表明：扫速为0.05V·s-1,在0.1mol·L(-1)的PBS(pH=7)中,富集10min,可得到峰形较好的氧化还原峰,在5.0～400μM范围,峰电流与浓度呈线性关系,线性关系式为：ip(μA)=0.1670+0.4316C（μM)(r=0.9997),检测限为0.5μM (S/N=3), RSD=4.1%(n=6),该方法具有较高的灵敏度和较好的重现性,可应用于废水中的邻硝基苯酚含量测定。
Chapter1:This chapter briefly introduced the properties, structure and the research progress of graphene. The research on pharmacology, toxicology and analytical detection and the electrochemical determination progress of doxorubicin, methotrexate and o-nitrophenol were summarized in this chapter.
Chapter2:This chapter mainly introduced the synthesis of β-CD modified graphene (CD-GNs) from graphite and β-CD by wet chemical method. UV, IR, TGA, XPS, Raman, AFM and EIS were used to charaterize the prepared CD-GNs. The results showed that P-CD was connected to graphene surface, which made the CD-GNs had good dispersion in aqueous solution and good electrochemical behavior. CD-GNs can be applied to the electrochemical sensor.
Chapter3:This study showed that the response current of DOX obtained on the CD-GNs modified glassy carbon electrode (CD-GNs/GCE) increased by26.5times compared to the result obtained on bare GCE. Under the optimized conditions, the new determination method of doxorubicin was established. There were a pair of redox peaks at Ep=-0.682V(vs.SCE) in0.1mol·L~(-1) PBS (pH=8). The linear range was10nM～0.2μM,the linear equation was ip (μA)=18.0+236C (μM)(r=0.9981) and the detection limit of DOX was0.1nM (S/N=3), RSD=3.9%(n=6). Recovery experiment was carried out in urine, the recovery was97%～102%,which indicated that this method could be applied in detection of DOX in urine.
Chapter4:This chapter studied the electrochemical behavior of methotrexate (MTX) on CD-GNs modified glassy carbon electrode. Under optimized conditions, the response current of doxorubicin obtained on the CD-GNs/GCE increased by23.7times compared to the result on bare GCE, the new determination method of MXT was established. There were a pair of redox peaks at Ep=-0.596V(vs.SCE) in0.1mol·L-1PBS (pH=6). The linear range was0.1～1.0μM, the linear equation was ip (μA)=1.29+67.8C (μM)(r=0.9994), the detection limit of doxorubicin was20nM (S/N=3), RSD=4.7%(n=6). Recovery experiment was carried out in urine, the recovery was100%～105%, which indicated that this method could be applied in detection of MTX in urine.
Chapter5:This chapter discussed the electrochemical behavior of o-nitrophenol (O-NP) on CD-GNs/GCE by cyclic voltammetry (CV). Under the scan rate of0.05V·s-1, The results showed that after accumulation for10min, there were a pair of obvious redox peaks in0.1mol·L-1PBS (pH=7). The linear range was5.0～400μM, the linear equation was ip (μA)=0.1670+0.4316C(μM)(r=0.9997), the detection limit of O-NP was0.5nM(S/N=3), RSD=4.1%(n=6). This method showed good repeatability and could be used in the detection of O-NP in the sample of waste water.
第二章：以石墨为原料,结合p-环糊精(p-CD),采用湿化学法制备了环糊精功能化石墨烯纳米材料(CD-GNs),并利用紫外-可见光谱(UV)、疏水性、红外光谱(IR)、热重分析(TGA)、X-射线光电子能谱(XPS)、拉曼光谱(Raman Spectroscopy).原子力显微镜(AFM)及交流阻抗测试(EIS)对其进行了表征,结果表明：p-CD能很好吸附在石墨烯表面,制备的石墨烯纳米材料水溶液分散性较好,并具有较强的电化学行为,可应用于传感器的制备。
第三章：利用环糊精功能化石墨烯纳米材料修饰的玻碳电极(CD-GNs/GCE)建立了阿霉素(DOX)的超灵敏检测方法。在优化条件下,CD-GNs/GCE比裸玻碳电极(GCE)测定阿霉素电化学响应增加了26.5倍,在0.1mol·L-1磷酸缓冲液(PBS)(pH=8)中,DOX在Ep=-0.682V(vs.SCE)产生一对氧化还原峰,在10nM～0.2μM范围内峰电流与浓度呈线性关系,线性关系式为:ip(μA)=18.0+236C(μM)(r=0.9981),检测限为0.1nM(S/N=3),RSD=3.9％(n=6),回收率范围为97%-102%,该方法可以应用于尿样中阿霉素浓度的测定。
第四章：研究了氨甲喋呤(MTX)在CD-GNs/GCE的电化学行为,在最佳条件下,CD-GNs/GCE比GCE测定氨甲喋呤电化学响应增加了23.7倍,建立了测定氨甲喋呤的高灵敏方法。在0.1mol·L-1PBS(pH=6)中,MTX在Ep=-0.596V(vs.SCE)产生一对氧化还原峰,峰电流与浓度在0.1μM～1.0μM范围内呈线性关系,线性关系式为：ip(μA)=1.29+67.8C(μM)(r=0.9994),检测限为20nM(S/N=3),RSD=4.7%(n=6),回收率范围为100%-105%,该方法可应用于尿样中氨甲喋呤浓度的测定。
第五章：研究了邻硝基苯酚(O-NP)在CD-GNs修饰玻碳电极的电化学行为,利用循环伏安法研究了pH、富集时间、扫速对邻硝基苯酚浓度测定的影响,结果表明：扫速为0.05V·s-1,在0.1mol·L(-1)的PBS(pH=7)中,富集10min,可得到峰形较好的氧化还原峰,在5.0～400μM范围,峰电流与浓度呈线性关系,线性关系式为：ip(μA)=0.1670+0.4316C（μM)(r=0.9997),检测限为0.5μM (S/N=3), RSD=4.1%(n=6),该方法具有较高的灵敏度和较好的重现性,可应用于废水中的邻硝基苯酚含量测定。
Chapter1:This chapter briefly introduced the properties, structure and the research progress of graphene. The research on pharmacology, toxicology and analytical detection and the electrochemical determination progress of doxorubicin, methotrexate and o-nitrophenol were summarized in this chapter.
Chapter2:This chapter mainly introduced the synthesis of β-CD modified graphene (CD-GNs) from graphite and β-CD by wet chemical method. UV, IR, TGA, XPS, Raman, AFM and EIS were used to charaterize the prepared CD-GNs. The results showed that P-CD was connected to graphene surface, which made the CD-GNs had good dispersion in aqueous solution and good electrochemical behavior. CD-GNs can be applied to the electrochemical sensor.
Chapter3:This study showed that the response current of DOX obtained on the CD-GNs modified glassy carbon electrode (CD-GNs/GCE) increased by26.5times compared to the result obtained on bare GCE. Under the optimized conditions, the new determination method of doxorubicin was established. There were a pair of redox peaks at Ep=-0.682V(vs.SCE) in0.1mol·L~(-1) PBS (pH=8). The linear range was10nM～0.2μM,the linear equation was ip (μA)=18.0+236C (μM)(r=0.9981) and the detection limit of DOX was0.1nM (S/N=3), RSD=3.9%(n=6). Recovery experiment was carried out in urine, the recovery was97%～102%,which indicated that this method could be applied in detection of DOX in urine.
Chapter4:This chapter studied the electrochemical behavior of methotrexate (MTX) on CD-GNs modified glassy carbon electrode. Under optimized conditions, the response current of doxorubicin obtained on the CD-GNs/GCE increased by23.7times compared to the result on bare GCE, the new determination method of MXT was established. There were a pair of redox peaks at Ep=-0.596V(vs.SCE) in0.1mol·L-1PBS (pH=6). The linear range was0.1～1.0μM, the linear equation was ip (μA)=1.29+67.8C (μM)(r=0.9994), the detection limit of doxorubicin was20nM (S/N=3), RSD=4.7%(n=6). Recovery experiment was carried out in urine, the recovery was100%～105%, which indicated that this method could be applied in detection of MTX in urine.
Chapter5:This chapter discussed the electrochemical behavior of o-nitrophenol (O-NP) on CD-GNs/GCE by cyclic voltammetry (CV). Under the scan rate of0.05V·s-1, The results showed that after accumulation for10min, there were a pair of obvious redox peaks in0.1mol·L-1PBS (pH=7). The linear range was5.0～400μM, the linear equation was ip (μA)=0.1670+0.4316C(μM)(r=0.9997), the detection limit of O-NP was0.5nM(S/N=3), RSD=4.1%(n=6). This method showed good repeatability and could be used in the detection of O-NP in the sample of waste water.
引文
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[5]Freeman R., Finder T., Bahshi L., Willner I.. Cyclodextrin-modified CdSe/ZnS quantum dots for sensing and chiroselective analysis. Nano Lett.2009,9,2073-2076.
[6]Zia V., Rajewski R.A., Stella V.J.. Effect of cyclodextrin charge on complexation of neutral and charged substrates:comparison of (SBE)7M-beta-CD to HPbeta-CD. Pharm. Res.2001,18,667-673.
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[13]Tung V.C., Allen M.J., Yang Y., et al. High-throughput solution processing of large-scale graphene. Nature Nanotechnol,2009,4,25-29
[1]Batist G, Ramakrishnan G., Rao C. S. Chandrasekharan, A., Gutheil, J., Guthrie, T. Shah, P., Khojasteh, A., Nair, M. K., Hoelzer K., Tkaczuk K., Park Y.C., Lee L.W.. Reduced cardiotoxicity and preserved antitumor efficacy of liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide compared with conventional doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide in a randomized, multicenter trial of metastatic breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol,2001,19,1444-1454.
[2]Allen T.M., Cheng W.W., Hare J.I., Laginha K.M.. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of lipidic nano-particles in cancer. Anticancer Agents. Med Chem,2006,6,513-523.
[3]Karczmar G.S., Tritton T. R.. The interaction of adryamicin with small unilamellar vesicle liposomes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta,1979,557,306-319.
[4]Crommelin D.J.A., Slaats N., van Blois L.. Preparation and characterization of doxorubicin-containing liposomes:I. Influence of liposome charge and pH of hydration medium on loading capacity and particle size. Znt. J. Pharm.,1983,16, 79-92.
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[6]Jiang H., Wang X.M.. Highly sensitive detection of daunorubicin based on carbon nanotubes:drug supramolecular interaction. Electrochem. Commun.,2008,11, 126-129.
[7]Fei J., Wen X., Zhang Y., Yi L., Chen X., Cao H.. Voltammetric determination of trace doxorubicin at a nano-titania/nafion composite film modified electrode in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Microchim. Acta,2009,164,85-91.
[1]Andersen P.A., West S.G., O'Dell J.R., et al. Weekly pulse methotrexate in rheunatioid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects in a randomized, double-blind study. Annals of internal medicine,1985,103,489-496.
[2]Bleyer W.A.. The clinical pharmacology of methotrexate:new applications of an old drug. Cancer,1978,41,36-51.
[3]Pui C.H., Campana D., Evans W.E.. Childhood acute lymphoblastic Leukaemia-current status and future perspectives. Lancetoncology,2001,2,597-607.
[4]J.Rodriguez Flores, G.Castaneda Penalvo, A.Espinosa Mansill, M.J. Rodriguez Gomez. Capillary electrophoretic determination of methotrexate, leucovorin and folic acid in human urine. Journal of Chromatography B,2005,819,141-147.
[1]Liao Qiu, Sun jing, Gao Lian. The adsorption of resorcinol from water using multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Colloids and surfaces A-Physicochemical and engineering aspects,2008,312,160-165.
[2]Kumar Arinjay, Kumar Shashi, Kumar Surendra. Adsorption of phenol and 4-nitrophenol on granular activated carbon in basal salt medium:equilibrium and kinetics. Hazardous materials,2007,155-166.
[3]Guido busca, Silvia berardinelli, Carlo resini, Laura arrighi. Technologies for the remo veal of phenol from fluid streams. Hazardous materials,2008,160,265-288.
[4]Arasteh R., Masoumi M., Rashidi A.M., Moradi L., Samimi V., Mostafavi S.T.. Adsorption of 2-nitrophenol by multi-wall carbon nanotubes from aqueous solutions. Applied Surface Science,2010,256,4447-4455.
[5]Li X. L., Wang X. R., Zhang, L., Lee S., Dai H. J.. Chemically derived, ultrasmooth graphene Nanoribbon Semiconductors. Science,2008,319,1229-1232.
[6]Pang S. P., Tsao H. N., Feng X. L., Mullen K.. Patterned graphene electrodes from solution-processed graphite oxide films for organic field-effect transistors. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,3488-3491.
[7]Wu Z. S., Pei S.F., Ren W. C., Tang D. M., Gao L. B., Liu B. L., Li F., Liu C, Cheng H. M.. Field emission of single-layer graphene films prepared by electrophoretic deposition. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,1756-1760.
[8]Di C.A., Wei D.C, Yu G., Liu Y.Q., Guo Y.L., Zhu D.B.. Patterned graphene as source/drain electrodes for bottom-contact organic field-effect transistors. Adv. Mater.,2008,20,3289-3293.
[9]Xu Y.F., Liu Z.B., Zhang X. L., Wang Y., Tian J.G., Huang Y., Ma Y.F., Zhang X.Y., Chen Y.S.. A graphene hybrid material covalently functionalized with porphyrin: synthesis and optical limiting property. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,1275-1279.
[10]Pasricha R., Gupta S., Srivastava A.K.. A facile and novel synthesis of Ag-graphene-based nanocomposites. Small,2009,5,2253-2259.
[11]Vickery J.L., Patil A.J., Mann S.. Fabrication of graphene-polymer nanocomposites with higher-order three-dimensional architectures. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,2180-2184.
[12]Lu C.H., Yang H.H.,Zhu C.L., Chen X., Chen G.N.. A graphene platform for sensing biomolecules. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.,2009,48,4785-4787.
[13]Lu J., Do I., Drzal L.T., Worden R.M., Lee I.. Nanometal-decorated exfoliated graphite nanoplatelet based glucose biosensors with high sensitivity and fast response. ACS Nano,2008,2,1825-1832.
[14]Seger B., Kamat P.V.. Electrocatalytically active graphene-platinum nanocomposites. role of 2-D carbon support in PEM fuel cells. J. Phys. Chem. C.,2009,113, 7990-7995.
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[1]Rekharsky M., Inoue Y.. Complexation Thermodynamics of Cyclodextrins. Chem.Rev. 1998,98,1875-1918.
[2]Yujing Guo, Shaojun Guo, Jiangtao Ren, Yueming Zhai, Shaojun Dong, Erkang Wang. Cyclodextrin functionalized graphene nanosheets with high supramolecular recognition capability:Synthesis and host-guest inclusion for enhanced electrochemical performance. ACS.Nano,2010,9,4001-4010.
[3]Rekharsky M., Inoue Y.. Complexation Thermodynamics of Cyclodextrins. Chem. Rev.1998,98,1875-1918.
[4]Wang F., Khaledi M. G.. Chiral separations by nonaqueous capillary electrophoresis. Anal. Chem.1996,68,3460-3467.
[5]Freeman R., Finder T., Bahshi L., Willner I.. Cyclodextrin-modified CdSe/ZnS quantum dots for sensing and chiroselective analysis. Nano Lett.2009,9,2073-2076.
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[7]LiuK., FuH., XieY., Zhang L., PanK., Zhou W.. Phys. Chem.2008,112,951.
[8]Yan Jun, Wei Tong, Shao Bo, et al. Preparation of a grapheme nanosheet/polyaniline composite with high specific capacitance. Carbon,2010,48,487-493.
[9]Hernandez Y., Nicolosi V., Lotya M., et al. High-yield production of graphene by liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite. Nature Nanotechnol,2008,3,563-568
[10]Kim K.S., Zhao Y., Jang H. et al. Large-scale pattern growth of grapheme films for stretchable transparent electrode. Nature,2009,457,706-710.
[11]Li X.S., Cai W.W., An J.H. et al. Large-area synthesis of highe-quality and uniform grapheme films on copper foils. Science,2009,324,1312-1314.
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[13]Tung V.C., Allen M.J., Yang Y., et al. High-throughput solution processing of large-scale graphene. Nature Nanotechnol,2009,4,25-29
[1]Batist G, Ramakrishnan G., Rao C. S. Chandrasekharan, A., Gutheil, J., Guthrie, T. Shah, P., Khojasteh, A., Nair, M. K., Hoelzer K., Tkaczuk K., Park Y.C., Lee L.W.. Reduced cardiotoxicity and preserved antitumor efficacy of liposome-encapsulated doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide compared with conventional doxorubicin and cyclophosphamide in a randomized, multicenter trial of metastatic breast cancer. J. Clin. Oncol,2001,19,1444-1454.
[2]Allen T.M., Cheng W.W., Hare J.I., Laginha K.M.. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of lipidic nano-particles in cancer. Anticancer Agents. Med Chem,2006,6,513-523.
[3]Karczmar G.S., Tritton T. R.. The interaction of adryamicin with small unilamellar vesicle liposomes. Biochim. Biophys. Acta,1979,557,306-319.
[4]Crommelin D.J.A., Slaats N., van Blois L.. Preparation and characterization of doxorubicin-containing liposomes:I. Influence of liposome charge and pH of hydration medium on loading capacity and particle size. Znt. J. Pharm.,1983,16, 79-92.
[5]Burke T.G., Tritton T.R.. Ligand self-association at the surface of liposomes:a complication during equilibriumbinding studies. Anal. Biochem.,1984,143,135-140.
[6]Jiang H., Wang X.M.. Highly sensitive detection of daunorubicin based on carbon nanotubes:drug supramolecular interaction. Electrochem. Commun.,2008,11, 126-129.
[7]Fei J., Wen X., Zhang Y., Yi L., Chen X., Cao H.. Voltammetric determination of trace doxorubicin at a nano-titania/nafion composite film modified electrode in the presence of cetyltrimethylammonium bromide. Microchim. Acta,2009,164,85-91.
[1]Andersen P.A., West S.G., O'Dell J.R., et al. Weekly pulse methotrexate in rheunatioid arthritis. Clinical and immunologic effects in a randomized, double-blind study. Annals of internal medicine,1985,103,489-496.
[2]Bleyer W.A.. The clinical pharmacology of methotrexate:new applications of an old drug. Cancer,1978,41,36-51.
[3]Pui C.H., Campana D., Evans W.E.. Childhood acute lymphoblastic Leukaemia-current status and future perspectives. Lancetoncology,2001,2,597-607.
[4]J.Rodriguez Flores, G.Castaneda Penalvo, A.Espinosa Mansill, M.J. Rodriguez Gomez. Capillary electrophoretic determination of methotrexate, leucovorin and folic acid in human urine. Journal of Chromatography B,2005,819,141-147.
[1]Liao Qiu, Sun jing, Gao Lian. The adsorption of resorcinol from water using multi-walled carbon nanotubes. Colloids and surfaces A-Physicochemical and engineering aspects,2008,312,160-165.
[2]Kumar Arinjay, Kumar Shashi, Kumar Surendra. Adsorption of phenol and 4-nitrophenol on granular activated carbon in basal salt medium:equilibrium and kinetics. Hazardous materials,2007,155-166.
[3]Guido busca, Silvia berardinelli, Carlo resini, Laura arrighi. Technologies for the remo veal of phenol from fluid streams. Hazardous materials,2008,160,265-288.
[4]Arasteh R., Masoumi M., Rashidi A.M., Moradi L., Samimi V., Mostafavi S.T.. Adsorption of 2-nitrophenol by multi-wall carbon nanotubes from aqueous solutions. Applied Surface Science,2010,256,4447-4455.
[5]Li X. L., Wang X. R., Zhang, L., Lee S., Dai H. J.. Chemically derived, ultrasmooth graphene Nanoribbon Semiconductors. Science,2008,319,1229-1232.
[6]Pang S. P., Tsao H. N., Feng X. L., Mullen K.. Patterned graphene electrodes from solution-processed graphite oxide films for organic field-effect transistors. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,3488-3491.
[7]Wu Z. S., Pei S.F., Ren W. C., Tang D. M., Gao L. B., Liu B. L., Li F., Liu C, Cheng H. M.. Field emission of single-layer graphene films prepared by electrophoretic deposition. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,1756-1760.
[8]Di C.A., Wei D.C, Yu G., Liu Y.Q., Guo Y.L., Zhu D.B.. Patterned graphene as source/drain electrodes for bottom-contact organic field-effect transistors. Adv. Mater.,2008,20,3289-3293.
[9]Xu Y.F., Liu Z.B., Zhang X. L., Wang Y., Tian J.G., Huang Y., Ma Y.F., Zhang X.Y., Chen Y.S.. A graphene hybrid material covalently functionalized with porphyrin: synthesis and optical limiting property. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,1275-1279.
[10]Pasricha R., Gupta S., Srivastava A.K.. A facile and novel synthesis of Ag-graphene-based nanocomposites. Small,2009,5,2253-2259.
[11]Vickery J.L., Patil A.J., Mann S.. Fabrication of graphene-polymer nanocomposites with higher-order three-dimensional architectures. Adv. Mater.,2009,21,2180-2184.
[12]Lu C.H., Yang H.H.,Zhu C.L., Chen X., Chen G.N.. A graphene platform for sensing biomolecules. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.,2009,48,4785-4787.
[13]Lu J., Do I., Drzal L.T., Worden R.M., Lee I.. Nanometal-decorated exfoliated graphite nanoplatelet based glucose biosensors with high sensitivity and fast response. ACS Nano,2008,2,1825-1832.
[14]Seger B., Kamat P.V.. Electrocatalytically active graphene-platinum nanocomposites. role of 2-D carbon support in PEM fuel cells. J. Phys. Chem. C.,2009,113, 7990-7995.