Characteristics of mountain glacier surge hazard: learning from a surge event in NE Pamir, China
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摘要
Abnormal glacier movement is likely to result in canyon-type hazards chain, such as the barrier lake of Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon formed by glacier debris flow in October 2018 in China.Glacier hazard usually evolves from the glacier surge and may occur in a regular cycle. Understanding the characteristics and process of glacier surge is important for early hazard recognition and hazard assessment. Based on field investigations, remote sensing interpretations and SAR offset-tracking surveys, this study confirms a typical glacier surge in the northeast Pamir, and presents its characteristics and processes. "Black ice" mixed moraines choking uplift and overflowing lateral marine are the most important scenic characteristics, which were formed under the conditions of stagnant glacier downstream and abundant super-glacial moraine. Glacier movement event can be divided into a five-period cycle including quiescent, inoculation, initiation,fracture and decline. This surge event lasted for about 300 days, initiated in February 2015 developed extensive fracturing zone in spring and early summer at maximum velocity of 10±0.95 m/day, declined after August 2015 and recovered to quiescent status in October 2015 for the next inoculation. The average height of glacier "receiving" area increased by 20-40 m with 2.7-3.6×10~8 m~3 ice transferred from glacier "reservoir", and this volume accumulation again require 50-100 years for glacier mass balance which gives approximately 100 years frequency of the glacier surge. Nevertheless, long-period increase of precipitation and temperature were favorable for the occurrence, hydrological instability is the direct triggering mechanism, and while the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) hazards are unlikely to occur with this surge.
Abnormal glacier movement is likely to result in canyon-type hazards chain, such as the barrier lake of Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon formed by glacier debris flow in October 2018 in China.Glacier hazard usually evolves from the glacier surge and may occur in a regular cycle. Understanding the characteristics and process of glacier surge is important for early hazard recognition and hazard assessment. Based on field investigations, remote sensing interpretations and SAR offset-tracking surveys, this study confirms a typical glacier surge in the northeast Pamir, and presents its characteristics and processes. "Black ice" mixed moraines choking uplift and overflowing lateral marine are the most important scenic characteristics, which were formed under the conditions of stagnant glacier downstream and abundant super-glacial moraine. Glacier movement event can be divided into a five-period cycle including quiescent, inoculation, initiation,fracture and decline. This surge event lasted for about 300 days, initiated in February 2015 developed extensive fracturing zone in spring and early summer at maximum velocity of 10±0.95 m/day, declined after August 2015 and recovered to quiescent status in October 2015 for the next inoculation. The average height of glacier "receiving" area increased by 20-40 m with 2.7-3.6×10~8 m~3 ice transferred from glacier "reservoir", and this volume accumulation again require 50-100 years for glacier mass balance which gives approximately 100 years frequency of the glacier surge. Nevertheless, long-period increase of precipitation and temperature were favorable for the occurrence, hydrological instability is the direct triggering mechanism, and while the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) hazards are unlikely to occur with this surge.
Abnormal glacier movement is likely to result in canyon-type hazards chain, such as the barrier lake of Yarlung Zangbo Grand Canyon formed by glacier debris flow in October 2018 in China.Glacier hazard usually evolves from the glacier surge and may occur in a regular cycle. Understanding the characteristics and process of glacier surge is important for early hazard recognition and hazard assessment. Based on field investigations, remote sensing interpretations and SAR offset-tracking surveys, this study confirms a typical glacier surge in the northeast Pamir, and presents its characteristics and processes. "Black ice" mixed moraines choking uplift and overflowing lateral marine are the most important scenic characteristics, which were formed under the conditions of stagnant glacier downstream and abundant super-glacial moraine. Glacier movement event can be divided into a five-period cycle including quiescent, inoculation, initiation,fracture and decline. This surge event lasted for about 300 days, initiated in February 2015 developed extensive fracturing zone in spring and early summer at maximum velocity of 10±0.95 m/day, declined after August 2015 and recovered to quiescent status in October 2015 for the next inoculation. The average height of glacier "receiving" area increased by 20-40 m with 2.7-3.6×10~8 m~3 ice transferred from glacier "reservoir", and this volume accumulation again require 50-100 years for glacier mass balance which gives approximately 100 years frequency of the glacier surge. Nevertheless, long-period increase of precipitation and temperature were favorable for the occurrence, hydrological instability is the direct triggering mechanism, and while the Glacier Lake Outburst Flood(GLOF) hazards are unlikely to occur with this surge.
引文
Bahr DB,Meier MF,Peckham SD(1997)The physical basis of glacier volume-area scaling.Journal of Geophysical Research B:Solid Earth 102:20355-20362.https://doi.org/10.1029/97JB01696
Barrand NE,Murray T(2006)Multivariate controls on the incidence of glacier surging in the Karakoram Himalaya.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 38(4):489-498.https://doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2006)38[489:MCOTIO]2.0.CO;2
Bj?rnsson H(1998)Hydrological characteristics of the drainage system beneath a surging glacier.Nature 395(6704):771-774
Burgess,EW,Forster RR,Larsen CF,et al.(2012)Surge dynamics on Bering Glacier,Alaska,in 2008-2011.The Cryosphere 6:1251-1262.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1251-2012
Chen J,Ohmura A(1990)Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s,IAHSPublications-Hydrology in Mountainous Regions,I-Hydrological Measurements;the water cycle,Proceedings of two Lausanne Symposia,August 1990,edited by:Lang,H.and Musy,A.,IAHS Publ.,193,127-135.
Clarke GKC,Collins SG,Thompson DE(1984)Flow,thermal structure,and subglacial conditions of a surge-type glacier.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21(2):232-240.https://doi.org/10.1139/e84-024
Clarke GKC,Schmok JP,Ommanney CSL,et al.(1986)Characteristics of surge-type glaciers.Journal of Geophysical Research 91(B7):7165-7180.https://doi.org/10.1029/JB091iB07p07165
Clarke GKC(1991)Length,width and slope influences on glacier surging.Journal of Glaciology 37(126):236-246.https://doi.org/110.1017/S0022143000007255
Copland L,Sylvestre T,Bishop MP,et al.(2011)Expanded and recently increased glacier surging in the Karakoram.Arct.Antarct.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 43(4):503-516.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.503
Ding GX,Chen CP,Xie CW(2014)Study of the ice tongue ablation features of a large glacier in the south slopes of the Mt.Tuomuer in the Tianshan Mountains.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 36(1):20-29.(In Chinese)
Dolgoushin LD,Osipova GB(1975)Glacier surges and the problem of their forecasting,Snow and Ice-SymposiumNeiges et Glaces(Proceedings of the Moscow Symposium,August 1971;Actes du Colloque de Moscou,ao?t 1971):IAHS-AISH Publ.No.104.
Fatland,DR,Lingle CS(1998)Analysis of the 1993-95 Bering Glacier(Alaska)surge using differential SAR interferometry.Journal of Glaciology 44(148):532-546.https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000002057
Frappe TP,Clarke GKC(2007)Slow surge of Trapridge glacier,Yukon Territory,Canada.Journal of Geophysical Research,112(F3).https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000607
Frey H,Machguth H,Huss M,et al.(2014)Estimating the volume of glaciers in the Himalayan-Karakoram region using different methods.The Cryosphere 8:2313-2333.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2313-2014.
Guo WQ,Liu SY,Xu JL(2012)Monitoring recent surging of the Yulinchuan glacier on north slopes of Muztag Range by remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 34(4):765-774.(In Chinese)
Haeberli,W(2016)Brief communication:On area-and sloperelated thickness estimates and volume calculations for unmeasured glaciers.The Cryosphere Discuss.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222.Revised manuscript has not been submitted,website is https://www.the-cryospherediscuss.net/tc-2015-222/
Han HD,Ding YJ,Liu SY(2005)Estimation and analysis of heat balance parameters in the ablation season of debriscovered Kerqikaer glacier.Tianshan Mountains,Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 27(1):88-94.(In Chinese)
Hagen JO.(1987)Glacier surge at Usherbreen,Svalbard.Polar Research 5(2):239-252.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-8369.1987.tb00625.x
Holzer N,Vijay S,Yao T(2015)Four decades of glacier variations at Muztagh Ata(eastern Pamir):a multi-sensor study including Hexagon KH-9 and Pléiades data.The Cryosphere 9:2071-2088.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2071-2015
Jiang ZL,Ding YJ,Liu SY(2012)A Study of the Debris-covered Glacier Limit Based on SAR.Advances in Earth Sciences27(11):1245-1251.
Jiang ZL,Liu SY,Long SC(2014)Analysis of the glacier dynamics features in Kongur Mountain based on SARtechnology and DEMs.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology36(2):286-295.(In Chinese)
Jónsson SA,Schomacker A,Benediktssoní?,et al.(2014)The drumlin field and the geomorphology of the Múlaj?kull surgetype glacier,central Iceland.Geomorphology 207:213-220.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.11.007
Kamb B,Raymond CF,Harrison WD,et al.(1985)Glacier surge mechanism:1982-1983 Surge of variegated glacier,Alaska.Science 227(4686):469-479.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.227.4686.469
Kang ES,Zhu SS,Huang MM(1985)Glaciers and weather in Mt.Tomor of Tianshan Mountains,Xinjiang People”s Publishing House,Urumchi,99-119.
Kotlyakov VM,Osipova GB,Tsvetkov DG(2008)Monitoring surging glaciers of the Pamirs,central Asia,from space.Annals of Glaciology 48:125-134.https://doi.org/10.3189/172756408784700608
Li SS,Zhang MJ,Li ZQ(2013)Variation of glacier terminuses in the Tianshan Mountains,China,during the Period of 1960-2009.Arid Zone Research 30(2):378-384.
Li JL,Chen X,Bao AM,et al.(2016)Glacier hazard emergency monitoring of the Jiubie Peak in Kongur Mountains using unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry.Arid land Geography 39(2):378-386.(In Chinese)
Liu WG,Xiao CD,Liu JS(2013)Analyzing the ablation rate characteristics of the Rongbuk glacier on the Mt.Qomolangma,central Himalayas.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 35(4):814-823.(In Chinese)
Liu JS,Wang D(2009)Surging glacier found in upstream Yarkant River of Karakorum Mountains in 2009 summer.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 31(5):45.(In Chinese)
Luckman A,Quincey D,Bevan S(2007)The potential of satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking for monitoring flow rates of Himalayan glaciers.Remote Sensing Environment 111(2):172-181.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.05.019
Mao WY,Sun BG,Wang T(2006)Change trends of temperature,precipitation and runoff Volume in the Kaxgar river basin since recent 50 years.Arid Zone Research 23(4):531-538.(In Chinese)
Meier MF,Post AS(1969)What are glacier surges?Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 6(4):807-817.https://doi.org/10.1139/e69-081
Mt.Tomor Glacier Research Team of Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Cryopedology,Chinese Academy of Sciences(1982)Basic characteristics of glaciers in Mt.Tomor of Tianshan Mountains.Science in China,Series B 12(8):736-744.
Murray T,Strozzi T,Luckman A,et al.(2003)Is there a single surge mechanism?contrasts in dynamics between glacier surges in Svalbard and other regions.Journal of Geophysical Research 108(B5):2237.https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001906
Murray TGW,Miller PJ,Woodward J,et al.(2000)Glacier surge propagation by thermal evolution at the bed,Journal of Geophysical Research 105(B6):13491-13507.https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900066
Niu JF,Liu JS,Wang D(2011)Monitoring on ice-dammed lake and related Surging Glaciers in Yarkant River,Karakorum in2009.Journal of Mountain Sciences 29(3):276-282.(In Chinese)
Quincey DJ,Glasser NF,Cook SJ(2015)Heterogeneity in Karakoram glacier surges.Journal of Geophysical ResearchEarth Surface 120:1288-1300.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003515
Quincey DJ,Braun M,Glasser NF,et al.(2011)Karakoram glacier surge dynamics,Geophysical Research Letters 38:L18504.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049004
Quincey DJ,Luckman A,Benn D(2009)Quantification of Everest region glacier velocities between 1992 and 2002,using satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking.Journal of Glaciology 55(192):596-606.https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309789470987
Robinson AC,Yin A,Manning CE,et al.(2006)Tectonic evolution of the northeastern Pamir:Constraints from the northern portion of the Cenozoic Kongur Shan extensional system,western China.Geological Society of America Bulletin116(7):953-973.https://doi.org/10.1130/B25375.1
Robin GQ(1969)Initiation of glacier surges.Canada Journal of Earth Sciences 6(4):919-928.https://doi.org/10.1139/e69-096
Scherler D,Bookhagen DB,Strecker MR(2011)Spatially variable response of Himalayan glaciers to climate change affected by debris cover.Nature Geosciences 4:156-159.https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1068
Shangguan DH,Liu SY,Ding YJ(2005)Surging glacier found in Shaksgam River,Karakorum Mountains.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology,27(5):641-64.(In Chinese)
Shangguan DH,Liu SY,Ding YJ,et al.(2016)Characterizing the May 2015 Karayaylak Glacier surge in the eastern Pamir Plateau using remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology 62(35):944-953.https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.81
Sevestre H,Benn D(2015)Climatic and geometric controls on the global distribution of surge-type glaciers:Implications for a unifying model of surging.Journal of Glaciology 61(228):646-662.https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J136
Shi YF,Zhang XS(1978)Modern-time regression and progression of Batura glacier in Karakorum Mountains.Acta Geographica Sinica 33(1):27-40.(In Chinese)
Shi YF,Cui ZJ,Li JJ(1989)Quarternary glaciers and environmental problems in east China,Science Press,Beijing.(In Chinese)
Shi YF(2000)Glaciers and environment in China:past,present and future,Science Press,Beijing.
Shi YF,Cui ZJ,Su Z(2006)Quarternary glaciers and environmental change in China,Hebei Science&Technology Press,Shijiazhuang.(In Chinese)
Strozzi T,Luckman A,Murray T(2002)Glacier motion estimation using SAR offset-tracking procedures.IEEETransactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 40(11):2384-2391.https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2002.805079
Strozzi T,Kouraev A,Wiesmann A(2008)Estimation of Arctic glacier motion with satellite L-band SAR data.Remote Sensing Environment 112(3):636-645.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.06.007
Su Z,Ding L,Liu CC(1984)Glacier thickness and its reserves calculation on Tianshan Mountains.Xinjiang Geography 7:37-44.(In Chinese)
Su Z,Li S,Wang ZC(1989)Modern glaciers in Muztag and Kongur.Journal of Natural Resources 4(3):241-246.(In Chinese)
Wang L,Li ZQ,Wang FT(2011)Spatial distribution of the debris layer on glaciers of the Tuomuer Peak,western TienShan.Journal of Earth Science 22(4):528-538.(In Chinese)
Xie CW,Ding YJ,Liu SY(2004)Analysis on the glacial hydrological features of the glaciers on the south slope of Mt.Tuomuer and the effects on runoff.Arid Land Geography27(4):570-575.(In Chinese)
Xue Y,Han P,Feng GH(2003)Change trend of the precipitation and air temperature in Xinjiang since recent half century.Arid Zone Research 20(2):127-130.(In Chinese)
Yao X,Dai FC,IQBL J,et al.(2016)A Close Observation to a Typical Continental Valley Glacier Surge in Northeastern Pamir.The Cryosphere Discussion.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-235
Yang HA,An RZ(1991)Resources and distribution of modern glaciers in Yarkant River watershed,Chinese glacier catalog(Tarim River inland watershed:Yarkant River watershed),volume 3,Science Press,Beijing,pp3-5.(In Chinese)
Yao TD(1987)Relations among glacier mass balance,snow line and climate-a case study in Glacier No.1 at the headwaters of Urumqi River,Tianshan Mountains.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 9(4):289-300.(In Chinese)
Yao TD,Liu SY,Pu JC(2004)Recent glacial retreat in high Asia and its impact on water resource in Northwest China.Science in China Series D 34(6):535-543.(In Chinese)
Zhang WJ(1983)A surging glacier in the Najiabawa Peak area.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 5(4):75-76.(In Chinese)
Zhang Z,Liu SY,Wei JF(2016)Monitoring recent surging of the Karayaylak Glacier in Pamir by remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 38(1):11-20.(In Chinese)
Barrand NE,Murray T(2006)Multivariate controls on the incidence of glacier surging in the Karakoram Himalaya.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 38(4):489-498.https://doi.org/10.1657/1523-0430(2006)38[489:MCOTIO]2.0.CO;2
Bj?rnsson H(1998)Hydrological characteristics of the drainage system beneath a surging glacier.Nature 395(6704):771-774
Burgess,EW,Forster RR,Larsen CF,et al.(2012)Surge dynamics on Bering Glacier,Alaska,in 2008-2011.The Cryosphere 6:1251-1262.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-6-1251-2012
Chen J,Ohmura A(1990)Estimation of Alpine glacier water resources and their change since the 1870s,IAHSPublications-Hydrology in Mountainous Regions,I-Hydrological Measurements;the water cycle,Proceedings of two Lausanne Symposia,August 1990,edited by:Lang,H.and Musy,A.,IAHS Publ.,193,127-135.
Clarke GKC,Collins SG,Thompson DE(1984)Flow,thermal structure,and subglacial conditions of a surge-type glacier.Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 21(2):232-240.https://doi.org/10.1139/e84-024
Clarke GKC,Schmok JP,Ommanney CSL,et al.(1986)Characteristics of surge-type glaciers.Journal of Geophysical Research 91(B7):7165-7180.https://doi.org/10.1029/JB091iB07p07165
Clarke GKC(1991)Length,width and slope influences on glacier surging.Journal of Glaciology 37(126):236-246.https://doi.org/110.1017/S0022143000007255
Copland L,Sylvestre T,Bishop MP,et al.(2011)Expanded and recently increased glacier surging in the Karakoram.Arct.Antarct.Arctic Antarctic and Alpine Research 43(4):503-516.https://doi.org/10.1657/1938-4246-43.4.503
Ding GX,Chen CP,Xie CW(2014)Study of the ice tongue ablation features of a large glacier in the south slopes of the Mt.Tuomuer in the Tianshan Mountains.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 36(1):20-29.(In Chinese)
Dolgoushin LD,Osipova GB(1975)Glacier surges and the problem of their forecasting,Snow and Ice-SymposiumNeiges et Glaces(Proceedings of the Moscow Symposium,August 1971;Actes du Colloque de Moscou,ao?t 1971):IAHS-AISH Publ.No.104.
Fatland,DR,Lingle CS(1998)Analysis of the 1993-95 Bering Glacier(Alaska)surge using differential SAR interferometry.Journal of Glaciology 44(148):532-546.https://doi.org/10.3189/S0022143000002057
Frappe TP,Clarke GKC(2007)Slow surge of Trapridge glacier,Yukon Territory,Canada.Journal of Geophysical Research,112(F3).https://doi.org/10.1029/2006JF000607
Frey H,Machguth H,Huss M,et al.(2014)Estimating the volume of glaciers in the Himalayan-Karakoram region using different methods.The Cryosphere 8:2313-2333.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-2313-2014.
Guo WQ,Liu SY,Xu JL(2012)Monitoring recent surging of the Yulinchuan glacier on north slopes of Muztag Range by remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 34(4):765-774.(In Chinese)
Haeberli,W(2016)Brief communication:On area-and sloperelated thickness estimates and volume calculations for unmeasured glaciers.The Cryosphere Discuss.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-2015-222.Revised manuscript has not been submitted,website is https://www.the-cryospherediscuss.net/tc-2015-222/
Han HD,Ding YJ,Liu SY(2005)Estimation and analysis of heat balance parameters in the ablation season of debriscovered Kerqikaer glacier.Tianshan Mountains,Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 27(1):88-94.(In Chinese)
Hagen JO.(1987)Glacier surge at Usherbreen,Svalbard.Polar Research 5(2):239-252.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-8369.1987.tb00625.x
Holzer N,Vijay S,Yao T(2015)Four decades of glacier variations at Muztagh Ata(eastern Pamir):a multi-sensor study including Hexagon KH-9 and Pléiades data.The Cryosphere 9:2071-2088.https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-2071-2015
Jiang ZL,Ding YJ,Liu SY(2012)A Study of the Debris-covered Glacier Limit Based on SAR.Advances in Earth Sciences27(11):1245-1251.
Jiang ZL,Liu SY,Long SC(2014)Analysis of the glacier dynamics features in Kongur Mountain based on SARtechnology and DEMs.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology36(2):286-295.(In Chinese)
Jónsson SA,Schomacker A,Benediktssoní?,et al.(2014)The drumlin field and the geomorphology of the Múlaj?kull surgetype glacier,central Iceland.Geomorphology 207:213-220.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2013.11.007
Kamb B,Raymond CF,Harrison WD,et al.(1985)Glacier surge mechanism:1982-1983 Surge of variegated glacier,Alaska.Science 227(4686):469-479.https://doi.org/10.1126/science.227.4686.469
Kang ES,Zhu SS,Huang MM(1985)Glaciers and weather in Mt.Tomor of Tianshan Mountains,Xinjiang People”s Publishing House,Urumchi,99-119.
Kotlyakov VM,Osipova GB,Tsvetkov DG(2008)Monitoring surging glaciers of the Pamirs,central Asia,from space.Annals of Glaciology 48:125-134.https://doi.org/10.3189/172756408784700608
Li SS,Zhang MJ,Li ZQ(2013)Variation of glacier terminuses in the Tianshan Mountains,China,during the Period of 1960-2009.Arid Zone Research 30(2):378-384.
Li JL,Chen X,Bao AM,et al.(2016)Glacier hazard emergency monitoring of the Jiubie Peak in Kongur Mountains using unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry.Arid land Geography 39(2):378-386.(In Chinese)
Liu WG,Xiao CD,Liu JS(2013)Analyzing the ablation rate characteristics of the Rongbuk glacier on the Mt.Qomolangma,central Himalayas.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 35(4):814-823.(In Chinese)
Liu JS,Wang D(2009)Surging glacier found in upstream Yarkant River of Karakorum Mountains in 2009 summer.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology 31(5):45.(In Chinese)
Luckman A,Quincey D,Bevan S(2007)The potential of satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking for monitoring flow rates of Himalayan glaciers.Remote Sensing Environment 111(2):172-181.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.05.019
Mao WY,Sun BG,Wang T(2006)Change trends of temperature,precipitation and runoff Volume in the Kaxgar river basin since recent 50 years.Arid Zone Research 23(4):531-538.(In Chinese)
Meier MF,Post AS(1969)What are glacier surges?Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences 6(4):807-817.https://doi.org/10.1139/e69-081
Mt.Tomor Glacier Research Team of Lanzhou Institute of Glaciology and Cryopedology,Chinese Academy of Sciences(1982)Basic characteristics of glaciers in Mt.Tomor of Tianshan Mountains.Science in China,Series B 12(8):736-744.
Murray T,Strozzi T,Luckman A,et al.(2003)Is there a single surge mechanism?contrasts in dynamics between glacier surges in Svalbard and other regions.Journal of Geophysical Research 108(B5):2237.https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JB001906
Murray TGW,Miller PJ,Woodward J,et al.(2000)Glacier surge propagation by thermal evolution at the bed,Journal of Geophysical Research 105(B6):13491-13507.https://doi.org/10.1029/2000JB900066
Niu JF,Liu JS,Wang D(2011)Monitoring on ice-dammed lake and related Surging Glaciers in Yarkant River,Karakorum in2009.Journal of Mountain Sciences 29(3):276-282.(In Chinese)
Quincey DJ,Glasser NF,Cook SJ(2015)Heterogeneity in Karakoram glacier surges.Journal of Geophysical ResearchEarth Surface 120:1288-1300.https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JF003515
Quincey DJ,Braun M,Glasser NF,et al.(2011)Karakoram glacier surge dynamics,Geophysical Research Letters 38:L18504.https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL049004
Quincey DJ,Luckman A,Benn D(2009)Quantification of Everest region glacier velocities between 1992 and 2002,using satellite radar interferometry and feature tracking.Journal of Glaciology 55(192):596-606.https://doi.org/10.3189/002214309789470987
Robinson AC,Yin A,Manning CE,et al.(2006)Tectonic evolution of the northeastern Pamir:Constraints from the northern portion of the Cenozoic Kongur Shan extensional system,western China.Geological Society of America Bulletin116(7):953-973.https://doi.org/10.1130/B25375.1
Robin GQ(1969)Initiation of glacier surges.Canada Journal of Earth Sciences 6(4):919-928.https://doi.org/10.1139/e69-096
Scherler D,Bookhagen DB,Strecker MR(2011)Spatially variable response of Himalayan glaciers to climate change affected by debris cover.Nature Geosciences 4:156-159.https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1068
Shangguan DH,Liu SY,Ding YJ(2005)Surging glacier found in Shaksgam River,Karakorum Mountains.Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology,27(5):641-64.(In Chinese)
Shangguan DH,Liu SY,Ding YJ,et al.(2016)Characterizing the May 2015 Karayaylak Glacier surge in the eastern Pamir Plateau using remote sensing.Journal of Glaciology 62(35):944-953.https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2016.81
Sevestre H,Benn D(2015)Climatic and geometric controls on the global distribution of surge-type glaciers:Implications for a unifying model of surging.Journal of Glaciology 61(228):646-662.https://doi.org/10.3189/2015JoG14J136
Shi YF,Zhang XS(1978)Modern-time regression and progression of Batura glacier in Karakorum Mountains.Acta Geographica Sinica 33(1):27-40.(In Chinese)
Shi YF,Cui ZJ,Li JJ(1989)Quarternary glaciers and environmental problems in east China,Science Press,Beijing.(In Chinese)
Shi YF(2000)Glaciers and environment in China:past,present and future,Science Press,Beijing.
Shi YF,Cui ZJ,Su Z(2006)Quarternary glaciers and environmental change in China,Hebei Science&Technology Press,Shijiazhuang.(In Chinese)
Strozzi T,Luckman A,Murray T(2002)Glacier motion estimation using SAR offset-tracking procedures.IEEETransactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing 40(11):2384-2391.https://doi.org/10.1109/TGRS.2002.805079
Strozzi T,Kouraev A,Wiesmann A(2008)Estimation of Arctic glacier motion with satellite L-band SAR data.Remote Sensing Environment 112(3):636-645.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2007.06.007
Su Z,Ding L,Liu CC(1984)Glacier thickness and its reserves calculation on Tianshan Mountains.Xinjiang Geography 7:37-44.(In Chinese)
Su Z,Li S,Wang ZC(1989)Modern glaciers in Muztag and Kongur.Journal of Natural Resources 4(3):241-246.(In Chinese)
Wang L,Li ZQ,Wang FT(2011)Spatial distribution of the debris layer on glaciers of the Tuomuer Peak,western TienShan.Journal of Earth Science 22(4):528-538.(In Chinese)
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