目的论视角的生命科学解释模式反思
|
摘要
生命科学中的许多科学说明诉诸目的论解释,对此,主流的观点趋向于一种历史性探讨,即寻找造成功能差异的演化机制以及控制这些程序逐代变化的规律。然而,这种途径受到自然化目的论研究路径的诘问。重新考查终极因,剖析目的阐释的逻辑困惑,得到如下理解:"目的"概念是指逻辑上的优先性而非时间上的优先,它并不为存在提供必然性的原因,而是探求如何可能,强调有关可能事态的模态,并考察某一状态产生某结果的倾向是否强化了机体再生产的趋势;目的反映了"未来实现的事"对"既有事件"的约束。目的概念与因果说明之间具有不可还原的异质性,二者构成了不同视角的科学说明。目的的不可替代性体现出生物学在多大程度上具有其自身的科学基础,因而不能被其他已有学科的科学哲学所支配。
Many explanations in life science resort to teleology.Mainstream opinion tends towards historical exploration;that is,it looks for evolutionary mechanisms that result in functional differences and for rules leading to generational variation.However,this approach has been questioned by the research trajectory of natural teleology.If we reexamine the final cause and analyze the logical puzzles of teleological interpretation,we find that the concept of"cause"refers to logical not temporal priority.It does not provide a necessary reason for existence,but rather explores how it is possible,stressing models relating to possible states and examining whether the tendency of particular states to produce particular results strengthens the reproductive tendency of organisms.The ultimate end or purpose reflects the constraint placed by events occurring in the future on existing events.The concept of end or purpose and cause-and-effect explanations have an irreducible heterogeneity;they constitute quite different scientific explanations.The non-substitutable nature of ultimate ends demonstrates the extent to which biology has its own scientific foundation and thus cannot be controlled by the scientific philosophies of other disciplines.
Many explanations in life science resort to teleology.Mainstream opinion tends towards historical exploration;that is,it looks for evolutionary mechanisms that result in functional differences and for rules leading to generational variation.However,this approach has been questioned by the research trajectory of natural teleology.If we reexamine the final cause and analyze the logical puzzles of teleological interpretation,we find that the concept of"cause"refers to logical not temporal priority.It does not provide a necessary reason for existence,but rather explores how it is possible,stressing models relating to possible states and examining whether the tendency of particular states to produce particular results strengthens the reproductive tendency of organisms.The ultimate end or purpose reflects the constraint placed by events occurring in the future on existing events.The concept of end or purpose and cause-and-effect explanations have an irreducible heterogeneity;they constitute quite different scientific explanations.The non-substitutable nature of ultimate ends demonstrates the extent to which biology has its own scientific foundation and thus cannot be controlled by the scientific philosophies of other disciplines.
引文
(1)文德尔班:《哲学史教程》,罗达仁译,北京:商务印书馆,1997年,第551、774页。
(2)Michael Ruse,“Evolutionary Biology and the Question of Teleology,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,vol.58,2016,pp.100-101.
(3)参见李建会:《目的论解释与生物学的结构》,《科学技术与辩证法》1996年第10期;《目的论解释及其合理性》,《中国社会科学报》2016年5月17日,第2版;赵斌:《浅析生物学解释中的目的论问题》,《科学技术哲学研究》2009年第4期。
(4)参见蒂姆·卢恩斯:《功能》,莫汉·马修、克里斯托弗·斯蒂芬编:《生物学哲学》,赵斌译,北京:北京师范大学出版社,2013年,第671—673、676页。
(5)恩斯特·迈尔:《生物学思想发展的历史》,涂长晟等译,成都:四川教育出版社,2010年,第46页。
(6)恩斯特·迈尔:《生物学思想发展的历史》,第337、352页。
(7)Daniel W.McShea and Robert N.Brandon,Biology’s First Law:The Tendency for Diversity and Complexity to Increase in Evolutionary Systems,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2010,p.11.
(8)Justin Garson,“Function and Teleology,” in Sahotra Sarkar and Anya Plutynski,eds.,A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology,Massachusetts:Blackwell Publishing,2008,pp.525-526.
(9)参见斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德:《熊猫的拇指》,田洺译,海口:海南出版社,2008年,第7页。
(10)Elliott Sober,Philosophy of Biology,Colorado:Westview Press,2000,p.83.
(11)Robert N.Brandon,“Teleology in Self-Organizing Systems,” in Bernard Feltz,Marc Crommelinck and Philippe Goujon,eds.,Self-Organization and Emergence in Life Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2006,pp.268-269.
(12)斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德:《自达尔文以来》,田洺译,海口:海南出版社,2008年,第74—75页。
(13)Massimo Pigliucci,“The Nature of Evolutionary Biology:At the Borderlands Between Historical and Experimental Science,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,p.91.
(14)怀特海:《思维方式》,刘放桐译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第28—29页。
(15)昂利·柏格森:《创造进化论》,肖聿译,北京:华夏出版社,1999年,第40页。
(16)黑格尔:《哲学科学全书纲要》,薛华译,北京:北京大学出版社,2010年,第48页。
(17)Matteo Mossio and Leonardo Bich,“What Makes Biological Organisation Teleological?” Synthese,vol.194,no.4,2017,p.1089.
(18)参见Paul S.Agutter and Denys N.Wheatley,Thinking about Life:The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2008,p.213.
(19)André Ariew,“Teleology,” in David L.Hull and Michael Ruse,eds.,The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,pp.177-179.
(20)Karen Neander,“The Teleological Notion of ‘Function’,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy,vol.69,no.4,1991,p.467.
(21)Daniel W.McShea,“Upper-Directed Systems:A New Approach to Teleology in Biology,” Biology & Philosophy,vol.27,no.5,2012,pp.663-684.
(22)Georg Toepfer,“Teleology and Its Constitutive Role for Biology as the Science of Organized Systems in Nature,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Science,vol.43,no.1,2012,p.113.
(23)亚历克斯·罗森堡:《科学哲学:当代进阶教程》,刘华杰译,上海:上海科技教育出版社,2006年,第78页。
(24)Y.B.Sun,“Whole-Genome Sequence of the Tibetan Frog Nanorana Parkeri and the Comparative Evolution of Tetrapod Genomes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America,vol.112,no.11,2015,pp.E1257-E1262.
(25)Virginia Hughes,“Epigenetics:The Sins of the Father,” Nature,vol.507,no.7490,2014,pp.22-24.
(26)John Hawthorne and Daniel Nolan,“What Would Teleological Causation Be?” in John Hawthorne,ed.,Metaphysical Essays,New York:Oxford University Press,2006,pp.272-274.
(27)赖欣巴哈:《科学哲学的兴起》,伯尼译,北京:商务印书馆,1991年,第150—151页。
(28)Michael Ruse,“Teleology:Yesterday,Today,and Tomorrow?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,vol.31,no.1,2000,pp.213-232.
(29)亚里士多德:《形而上学》,苗力田译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003年,第101、267、253页。
(30)参见邱献仪:《生物目的性现象的科学说明之研究》,博士学位论文,中正大学,2013年,第128—136页。
(31)Jenann Ismael,“An Empiricist’s Guide to Objective Modality,” in Matthew H.Slater and Zanja Yudell,eds.,Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Science,New York:Oxford University Press,2017,pp.109-112.
(32)罗伯特·孔斯:《重塑实在论》,顿新国、张建军译,南京:南京大学出版社,2014年,第79—80页。
(33)Stephen Boulter,Metaphysics from a Biological Point of View,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2013,p.131.
(34)卡伦·尼安德:《心理表征的生物学路径》,莫汉·马修、克里斯托弗·斯蒂芬编:《生物学哲学》,第696页。
(35)威尔逊:《昆虫的社会》,王一民等译,重庆:重庆出版社,2007年,第174—178页。
(36)参见David Depew,“Conceptual Change and the Rhetoric of Evolutionary Theory:‘Force Talk’ as a Case Study and Challenge for Science Pedagogy,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.125-133.
(37)Cristian Saborido,“New Directions in the Philosophy of Biology:A New Taxonomy of Functions,” in Maria Carla Galavotti et al.,eds.,New Directions in the Philosophy of Science,Dordrecht:Springer,2014,pp.235-249.
(38)康德:《判断力批判》,邓晓芒译,北京:人民出版社,2002年,第32页。
(39)康德:《判断力批判》,第229页。
(40)Alex Rosenberg and Daniel W.McShea,Philosophy of Biology:A Contemporary Introduction,New York:Routledge,2008,pp.46-47.
(41)Peter Godfrey-Smith,Philosophy of Biology,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2014,pp.93-95.
(42)Wesley C.Salmon,Four Decades of Scientific Explanation,Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press,2006,pp.154-177.
(43)欧内斯特·内格尔:《科学的结构——科学说明的逻辑问题》,徐向东译,上海:上海译文出版社,2002年,第26页。
(44)Erik Weber et al.,Scientific Explanation,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.28-29,30,32.
(45)Alexander Bird,Nature’s Metaphysics.Laws and Properties,New York:Oxford University Press,2007,pp.71,43-47.
(46)Michel Morange,“Is There an Explanation for…the Diversity of Explanations in Biological Studies?” in Pierre-Alain Braillard and Christophe Malaterre,eds.,Explanation in Biology:An Enquiry into the Diversity of Explanatory Patterns in the Life Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2015,pp.31-44.
(47)Isabelle Peschard,“Making Sense of Modeling:Beyond Representation,” European Journal for Philosophy of Science,vol.1,no.3,2011,pp.335-352.
(48)Angela Potochnik,“Biological Explanation,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.52-53.
(49)参见Elliott Sober,“The Multiple Realizability Argument Against Reductionism,” “Evolution,Population Thinking,and Essentialism,” in Elliott Sober,ed.,Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology,Cambridge:The MIT Press,2006,pp.301-316,329-340;C.Kenneth Waters,“No General Structure,” in Matthew H.Slater and Zanja Yudell,eds.,Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Science,New York:Oxford University Press,2017,pp.81-104.
(50)亚里士多德:《形而上学》,第7页。
(51)皮特·J.鲍勒:《进化思想史》,田洺译,南昌:江西教育出版社,1999年,第162页。
(52)Paul S.Agutter and Denys N.Wheatley,Thinking about Life:The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2008,pp.110-111.
(53)Nicholson and Gawne,“Neither Logical Empiricism nor Vitalism,but Organicism:What the Philosophy of Biology Was,” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences,vol.37,no.4,2015,pp.358-376.
(54)M.Kirschner,J.Gerhart and T.Mitchison,“Molecular‘Vitalism’,” Cell,vol.100,2000,pp.79-88.
(55)John Dupré et al.,Processes of Life:Essays in the Philosophy of Biology,New York:Oxford University Press,2012,pp.188-189,155.
(2)Michael Ruse,“Evolutionary Biology and the Question of Teleology,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,vol.58,2016,pp.100-101.
(3)参见李建会:《目的论解释与生物学的结构》,《科学技术与辩证法》1996年第10期;《目的论解释及其合理性》,《中国社会科学报》2016年5月17日,第2版;赵斌:《浅析生物学解释中的目的论问题》,《科学技术哲学研究》2009年第4期。
(4)参见蒂姆·卢恩斯:《功能》,莫汉·马修、克里斯托弗·斯蒂芬编:《生物学哲学》,赵斌译,北京:北京师范大学出版社,2013年,第671—673、676页。
(5)恩斯特·迈尔:《生物学思想发展的历史》,涂长晟等译,成都:四川教育出版社,2010年,第46页。
(6)恩斯特·迈尔:《生物学思想发展的历史》,第337、352页。
(7)Daniel W.McShea and Robert N.Brandon,Biology’s First Law:The Tendency for Diversity and Complexity to Increase in Evolutionary Systems,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2010,p.11.
(8)Justin Garson,“Function and Teleology,” in Sahotra Sarkar and Anya Plutynski,eds.,A Companion to the Philosophy of Biology,Massachusetts:Blackwell Publishing,2008,pp.525-526.
(9)参见斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德:《熊猫的拇指》,田洺译,海口:海南出版社,2008年,第7页。
(10)Elliott Sober,Philosophy of Biology,Colorado:Westview Press,2000,p.83.
(11)Robert N.Brandon,“Teleology in Self-Organizing Systems,” in Bernard Feltz,Marc Crommelinck and Philippe Goujon,eds.,Self-Organization and Emergence in Life Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2006,pp.268-269.
(12)斯蒂芬·杰·古尔德:《自达尔文以来》,田洺译,海口:海南出版社,2008年,第74—75页。
(13)Massimo Pigliucci,“The Nature of Evolutionary Biology:At the Borderlands Between Historical and Experimental Science,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,p.91.
(14)怀特海:《思维方式》,刘放桐译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年,第28—29页。
(15)昂利·柏格森:《创造进化论》,肖聿译,北京:华夏出版社,1999年,第40页。
(16)黑格尔:《哲学科学全书纲要》,薛华译,北京:北京大学出版社,2010年,第48页。
(17)Matteo Mossio and Leonardo Bich,“What Makes Biological Organisation Teleological?” Synthese,vol.194,no.4,2017,p.1089.
(18)参见Paul S.Agutter and Denys N.Wheatley,Thinking about Life:The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2008,p.213.
(19)André Ariew,“Teleology,” in David L.Hull and Michael Ruse,eds.,The Cambridge Companion to the Philosophy of Biology,New York:Cambridge University Press,2007,pp.177-179.
(20)Karen Neander,“The Teleological Notion of ‘Function’,” Australasian Journal of Philosophy,vol.69,no.4,1991,p.467.
(21)Daniel W.McShea,“Upper-Directed Systems:A New Approach to Teleology in Biology,” Biology & Philosophy,vol.27,no.5,2012,pp.663-684.
(22)Georg Toepfer,“Teleology and Its Constitutive Role for Biology as the Science of Organized Systems in Nature,” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Science,vol.43,no.1,2012,p.113.
(23)亚历克斯·罗森堡:《科学哲学:当代进阶教程》,刘华杰译,上海:上海科技教育出版社,2006年,第78页。
(24)Y.B.Sun,“Whole-Genome Sequence of the Tibetan Frog Nanorana Parkeri and the Comparative Evolution of Tetrapod Genomes,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the United States of America,vol.112,no.11,2015,pp.E1257-E1262.
(25)Virginia Hughes,“Epigenetics:The Sins of the Father,” Nature,vol.507,no.7490,2014,pp.22-24.
(26)John Hawthorne and Daniel Nolan,“What Would Teleological Causation Be?” in John Hawthorne,ed.,Metaphysical Essays,New York:Oxford University Press,2006,pp.272-274.
(27)赖欣巴哈:《科学哲学的兴起》,伯尼译,北京:商务印书馆,1991年,第150—151页。
(28)Michael Ruse,“Teleology:Yesterday,Today,and Tomorrow?” Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences,vol.31,no.1,2000,pp.213-232.
(29)亚里士多德:《形而上学》,苗力田译,北京:中国人民大学出版社,2003年,第101、267、253页。
(30)参见邱献仪:《生物目的性现象的科学说明之研究》,博士学位论文,中正大学,2013年,第128—136页。
(31)Jenann Ismael,“An Empiricist’s Guide to Objective Modality,” in Matthew H.Slater and Zanja Yudell,eds.,Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Science,New York:Oxford University Press,2017,pp.109-112.
(32)罗伯特·孔斯:《重塑实在论》,顿新国、张建军译,南京:南京大学出版社,2014年,第79—80页。
(33)Stephen Boulter,Metaphysics from a Biological Point of View,New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2013,p.131.
(34)卡伦·尼安德:《心理表征的生物学路径》,莫汉·马修、克里斯托弗·斯蒂芬编:《生物学哲学》,第696页。
(35)威尔逊:《昆虫的社会》,王一民等译,重庆:重庆出版社,2007年,第174—178页。
(36)参见David Depew,“Conceptual Change and the Rhetoric of Evolutionary Theory:‘Force Talk’ as a Case Study and Challenge for Science Pedagogy,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.125-133.
(37)Cristian Saborido,“New Directions in the Philosophy of Biology:A New Taxonomy of Functions,” in Maria Carla Galavotti et al.,eds.,New Directions in the Philosophy of Science,Dordrecht:Springer,2014,pp.235-249.
(38)康德:《判断力批判》,邓晓芒译,北京:人民出版社,2002年,第32页。
(39)康德:《判断力批判》,第229页。
(40)Alex Rosenberg and Daniel W.McShea,Philosophy of Biology:A Contemporary Introduction,New York:Routledge,2008,pp.46-47.
(41)Peter Godfrey-Smith,Philosophy of Biology,Princeton:Princeton University Press,2014,pp.93-95.
(42)Wesley C.Salmon,Four Decades of Scientific Explanation,Pittsburgh:University of Pittsburgh Press,2006,pp.154-177.
(43)欧内斯特·内格尔:《科学的结构——科学说明的逻辑问题》,徐向东译,上海:上海译文出版社,2002年,第26页。
(44)Erik Weber et al.,Scientific Explanation,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.28-29,30,32.
(45)Alexander Bird,Nature’s Metaphysics.Laws and Properties,New York:Oxford University Press,2007,pp.71,43-47.
(46)Michel Morange,“Is There an Explanation for…the Diversity of Explanations in Biological Studies?” in Pierre-Alain Braillard and Christophe Malaterre,eds.,Explanation in Biology:An Enquiry into the Diversity of Explanatory Patterns in the Life Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2015,pp.31-44.
(47)Isabelle Peschard,“Making Sense of Modeling:Beyond Representation,” European Journal for Philosophy of Science,vol.1,no.3,2011,pp.335-352.
(48)Angela Potochnik,“Biological Explanation,” in Kostas Kampourakis,ed.,The Philosophy of Biology,Dordrecht:Springer,2013,pp.52-53.
(49)参见Elliott Sober,“The Multiple Realizability Argument Against Reductionism,” “Evolution,Population Thinking,and Essentialism,” in Elliott Sober,ed.,Conceptual Issues in Evolutionary Biology,Cambridge:The MIT Press,2006,pp.301-316,329-340;C.Kenneth Waters,“No General Structure,” in Matthew H.Slater and Zanja Yudell,eds.,Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Science,New York:Oxford University Press,2017,pp.81-104.
(50)亚里士多德:《形而上学》,第7页。
(51)皮特·J.鲍勒:《进化思想史》,田洺译,南昌:江西教育出版社,1999年,第162页。
(52)Paul S.Agutter and Denys N.Wheatley,Thinking about Life:The History and Philosophy of Biology and Other Sciences,Dordrecht:Springer,2008,pp.110-111.
(53)Nicholson and Gawne,“Neither Logical Empiricism nor Vitalism,but Organicism:What the Philosophy of Biology Was,” History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences,vol.37,no.4,2015,pp.358-376.
(54)M.Kirschner,J.Gerhart and T.Mitchison,“Molecular‘Vitalism’,” Cell,vol.100,2000,pp.79-88.
(55)John Dupré et al.,Processes of Life:Essays in the Philosophy of Biology,New York:Oxford University Press,2012,pp.188-189,155.