Impact of chlorine exposure time on disinfection byproduct formation in the presence of iopamidol and natural organic matter during chloramination
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摘要
Chloramines,in practice,are formed onsite by adding ammonia to chlorinated drinking water to achieve the required disinfection.While regulated disinfection byproducts(DBPs)are reduced during chloramine disinfection,other DBPs such as iodinated(iodo-)DBPs,that elicit greater toxicity are formed.The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of prechlorination time on the formation of both halogen-specific total organic halogen(TOX)and iodo/chlorinated(chloro-)DBPs during prechlorination/chloramination in source waters(SWs)containing iopamidol,an X-ray contrast medium.Barberton SW(BSW)and Cleveland SW(CSW)containing iopamidol were prechlorinated for 5–60 min and afterwards chloraminated for 72 hr with ammonium chloride.Chlorine contact time(CCT)did not significantly impact total organic iodine(TOI)concentrations after prechlorination or chloramination.Concentrations of total organic chlorine(TOCl)formed during prechlorination did not significantly change regardless of pH and prechlorination time,whileTOClappearedtodecreaseafter 72 hrchloraminationperiod.Dichloroiodomethane(CHCl_2I)formation during prechlorination did not exhibit any significant trends as a function of p H or CCT,but after chloramination,significant increases were observed at pHs 6.5 and 7.5 with respect to CCT.Iodo-HAAs were not formed during prechlorination but were detected after chloramination.Significant quantities of chloroform(CHCl_3)and trichloroacetic acid(TCAA)were formed during prechlorination but formation ceased upon ammonia addition.Therefore,prechlorination studies should measure TOX and DBP concentrations prior to ammonia addition to obtain data regarding the initial conditions.
Chloramines,in practice,are formed onsite by adding ammonia to chlorinated drinking water to achieve the required disinfection.While regulated disinfection byproducts(DBPs)are reduced during chloramine disinfection,other DBPs such as iodinated(iodo-)DBPs,that elicit greater toxicity are formed.The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of prechlorination time on the formation of both halogen-specific total organic halogen(TOX)and iodo/chlorinated(chloro-)DBPs during prechlorination/chloramination in source waters(SWs)containing iopamidol,an X-ray contrast medium.Barberton SW(BSW)and Cleveland SW(CSW)containing iopamidol were prechlorinated for 5–60 min and afterwards chloraminated for 72 hr with ammonium chloride.Chlorine contact time(CCT)did not significantly impact total organic iodine(TOI)concentrations after prechlorination or chloramination.Concentrations of total organic chlorine(TOCl)formed during prechlorination did not significantly change regardless of pH and prechlorination time,whileTOClappearedtodecreaseafter 72 hrchloraminationperiod.Dichloroiodomethane(CHCl_2I)formation during prechlorination did not exhibit any significant trends as a function of p H or CCT,but after chloramination,significant increases were observed at pHs 6.5 and 7.5 with respect to CCT.Iodo-HAAs were not formed during prechlorination but were detected after chloramination.Significant quantities of chloroform(CHCl_3)and trichloroacetic acid(TCAA)were formed during prechlorination but formation ceased upon ammonia addition.Therefore,prechlorination studies should measure TOX and DBP concentrations prior to ammonia addition to obtain data regarding the initial conditions.
Chloramines,in practice,are formed onsite by adding ammonia to chlorinated drinking water to achieve the required disinfection.While regulated disinfection byproducts(DBPs)are reduced during chloramine disinfection,other DBPs such as iodinated(iodo-)DBPs,that elicit greater toxicity are formed.The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of prechlorination time on the formation of both halogen-specific total organic halogen(TOX)and iodo/chlorinated(chloro-)DBPs during prechlorination/chloramination in source waters(SWs)containing iopamidol,an X-ray contrast medium.Barberton SW(BSW)and Cleveland SW(CSW)containing iopamidol were prechlorinated for 5–60 min and afterwards chloraminated for 72 hr with ammonium chloride.Chlorine contact time(CCT)did not significantly impact total organic iodine(TOI)concentrations after prechlorination or chloramination.Concentrations of total organic chlorine(TOCl)formed during prechlorination did not significantly change regardless of pH and prechlorination time,whileTOClappearedtodecreaseafter 72 hrchloraminationperiod.Dichloroiodomethane(CHCl_2I)formation during prechlorination did not exhibit any significant trends as a function of p H or CCT,but after chloramination,significant increases were observed at pHs 6.5 and 7.5 with respect to CCT.Iodo-HAAs were not formed during prechlorination but were detected after chloramination.Significant quantities of chloroform(CHCl_3)and trichloroacetic acid(TCAA)were formed during prechlorination but formation ceased upon ammonia addition.Therefore,prechlorination studies should measure TOX and DBP concentrations prior to ammonia addition to obtain data regarding the initial conditions.
引文
Ackerson,N.O.B.,Machek,E.J.,Killinger,A.H.,Crafton,E.A.,Kumkum,P.,Liberatore,H.K.,et al.,2018.Formation of DBPs and halogen-specific TOX in the presence of iopamidol and chlorinated oxidants.Chemosphere https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.102.
Allard,S.,Tan,J.,Joll,C.A.,von Gunten,U.,2015.Mechanistic study on the formation of Cl-/Br-/I-trihalomethanes during chlorination/chloramination combined with a theoretical cytotoxicity evaluation.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,11105-11114.
APHA,AWWA,WEF,2005.Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.20 ed.American Public Health Association,Washington,DC.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,1999.Oxidation of iodide and hypoiodous acid in the disinfection of natural waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.33,4040-4045.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,2000a.Formation of iodotrihalomethanes during disinfection and oxidation of iodide containing waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.34,2784-2791.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,2000b.Hypoiodous acid:Kinetics of the buffer-catalyzed disproportionation.Water Res.34,3197-3203.
Bougeard,C.M.,Goslan,E.H.,Jefferson,B.,Parsons,S.A.,2010.Comparison of the disinfection by-product formation potential of treated waters exposed to chlorine and monochloramine.Water Res.44(3),729-740.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.10.008.
Bull,R.J.,Birnbaum,L.S.,Cantor,K.P.,Rose,J.B.,Butterworth,B.E.,Pegram,R.,et al.,1995.Water chlorination:Essential process or cancer hazard?Fundam.Appl.Toxicol.28,155-166.
Chen,W.H.,Young,T.M.,2008.NDMA formation during chlorination and chloramination of aqueous diuron solutions.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,1072-1077.
Chen,W.,Westerhoff,P.,Leenheer,J.A.,Booksh,K.,2003.Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix regional integration to quantify spectra for dissolved organic matter.Environ.Sci.Technol.37,5701-5710.
Choi,J.,Valentine,R.L.,2002.Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine(NDMA)from reaction of monochloramine:A new disinfection by-product.Water Res.36,817-824.
Chuang,Y.-H.,McCurry,D.L.,Tung,H.-H.,Mitch,W.A.,2015.Formation pathways and trade-offs between haloacetamides and haloacetaldehydes during combined chlorination and chloramination of lignin phenols and natural waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,14432-14440.
Duirk,S.E.,Lindell,C.,Cornelison,C.C.,Kormos,J.,Ternes,T.A.,Attene-Ramos,M.,et al.,2011.Formation of toxic iodinated disinfection by-products from compounds used in medical imaging.Environ.Sci.Technol.45,6845-6854.
How,Z.T.,Linge,K.L.,Busetti,F.,Joll,C.A.,2016.Organic chloramines in drinking water:An assessment of formation,stability,reactivity and risk.Water Res.93,65-73.
How,Z.T.,Kristiana,I.,Busetti,F.,Linge,K.L.,Joll,C.A.,2017.Organic chloramines in chlorine-based disinfected watersystems:A critical review.Journal of Environmental Sciences 58,2-18.
Hua,G.,Reckhow,D.A.,2007a.Characterization of disinfection byproduct precursors based on hydrophobicity and molecular size.Environ.Sci.Technol.41,3309-3315.
Hua,G.,Reckhow,D.A.,2007b.Comparison of disinfection byproduct formation from chlorine and alternative disinfectants.Water Research 41,1667-1678.
Huang,H.,Wu,Q.-Y.,Hu,H.-Y.,Mitch,W.A.,2012.Dichloroacetonitrile and dichloroacetamide can form independently during chlorination and chloramination of drinking waters,model organic matters,and wastewater effluents.Environ.Sci.Technol.46,10624-10631.
Hui,F.,Debiemme-Chouvy,C.,2013.Antimicrobial N-halamine polymers and coatings:A review of their synthesis,characterization,and applications.Biomacromolecules 14(3),585-601.
Jafvert,C.T.,Valentine,R.L.,1992.Reaction scheme for the chlorination of ammoniacal water.Environ.Sci.Technol.26,577-586.
Jeong,C.H.,Postigo,C.,Richardson,S.D.,Simmons,J.E.,Kimura,S.Y.,Marinas,B.J.,et al.,2015.Occurrence and comparative toxicity of haloacetaldehyde disinfection byproducts in drinking water.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,13749-13759.
Jones,D.B.,Saglam,A.,Triger,A.,Song,H.,Karanfil,T.,2011.I-THM formation and speciation:preformed monochloramine versus prechlorination followed by ammonia addition.Environ.Sci.Technol.45,10429-10437.
Koivusalo,M.,Jaakkola,J.J.K.,Vartiainen,T.,Hakulinen,T.,Karjalainen,S.,Pukkala,E.,et al.,1994.Drinking-water mutagenicity and gastrointestinal and urinary-tract cancersAn ecological study in Finland.Am.J.Public Health 84,1223-1228.
Krasner,S.W.,Weinberg,H.S.,Richardson,S.D.,Pastor,S.J.,Chinn,R.,Sclimenti,M.J.,et al.,2006.Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.40,7175-7185.
Lee,W.,Westerhoff,P.,2009.Formation of organic chloramines during water disinfection-Chlorination versus chloramination.Water Res.43,2233-2239.
Morris,J.C.,Isaac,R.A.,1981.A critical review of kinetic and thermodynamic constants for the aqueous chlorine-ammonia system.In:Jolley,R.L.,Brungs,W.A.,Cotruvo,J.A.,et al.(Eds.),Water Chlorination:Environmental Impact and Health Effects.Ann Arbor Science,Ann Arbor,MI,pp.49-62.
Morris,R.D.,Audet,A.M.,Angelillo,I.F.,Chalmers,T.C.,Mosteller,F.,1992.Chlorination,chlorination by-products,and cancer-Ametaanalysis.Am.J.Public Health 82,955-963.
Nieuwenhuijsen,M.J.,Toledano,M.B.,Eaton,N.E.,Fawell,J.,Elliott,P.,2000.Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes:a review.Occup.Environ.Med.57,73-85.
Parsons,S.A.,Jefferson,B.,Goslan,E.H.,Jarvis,P.R.,Fearing,D.A.,2004.Natural organic matter-The relationship between character and treatability.Water Sci.Technol.:Water Supply 4,43-48.
Plewa,M.J.,Wagner,E.D.,Richardson,S.D.,Thruston,A.D.,Woo,Y.T.,McKague,A.B.,2004.Chemical and biological characterization of newly discovered lodoacid drinking water disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.38,4713-4722.
Plewa,M.J.,Muellner,M.G.,Richardson,S.D.,Fasanot,F.,Buettner,K.M.,Woo,Y.-T.,et al.,2008.Occurrence,synthesis,and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of haloacetamides:An emerging class of nitrogenous drinking water disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,955-961.
Plewa,M.J.,Simmons,J.E.,Richardson,S.D.,Wagner,E.D.,2010.Mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the haloacetic acids,a major class of drinking water disinfection by-products.Environ.Mol.Mutagen.51,871-878.
Postigo,C.,Richardson,S.D.,Barcelo,D.,2017.Formation of iodotrihalomethanes,iodo-haloacetic acids,and haloacetaldehydes during chlorination and chloramination of iodine containing waters in laboratory controlled reactions.J.Environ.Sci.58,127-134.
Regli,S.,Chen,J.,Messner,M.,Elovitz,M.S.,Letkiewicz,F.J.,Pegram,R.A.,et al.,2015.Estimating potential increased bladder cancer risk due to increased bromide concentrations in sources of disinfected drinking waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,13094-13102.
Richardson,S.D.,Plewa,M.J.,Wagner,E.D.,Schoeny,R.,DeMarini,D.M.,2007.Occurrence,genotoxicity,and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water:A review and roadmap for research.Mutat.Res.-Rev.Mutat.Res.636,178-242.
Richardson,S.D.,Fasano,F.,Ellington,J.J.,Crumley,F.G.,Buettner,K.M.,Evans,J.J.,et al.,2008.Occurrence and mammalian cell toxicity of iodinated disinfection byproducts in drinking water.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,8330-8338.
Shah,A.D.,Mitch,W.A.,2012.Halonitroalkanes,halonitriles,haloamides,and n-nitrosamines:A critical review of nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation pathways.Environ.Sci.Technol.46,119-131.
Shen,R.Q.,Andrews,S.A.,2013.NDMA formation from aminebased pharmaceuticals-Impact from prechlorination and water matrix.Water Res.47,2446-2457.
Tian,F.-X.,Xu,B.,Lin,Y.-L.,Hu,C.-Y.,Zhang,T.-Y.,Gao,N.-Y.,2014.Photodegradation kinetics of iopamidol by UV irradiation and enhanced formation of iodinated disinfection byproducts in sequential oxidation processes.Water Res.58,198-208.
Vikesland,P.J.,Ozekin,K.,Valentine,R.L.,2001.Monochloramine decay in model and distribution system waters.Water Res.35(7),1766-1776.
Villanueva,C.M.,Cantor,K.P.,Cordier,S.,Jaakkola,J.J.K.,King,W.D.,Lynch,C.F.,et al.,2004.Disinfection byproducts and bladder cancer-A pooled analysis.Epidemiology 15,357-367.
Waller,K.,Swan,S.H.,Windham,S.C.,Fenster,L.,2001.Influence of exposure assessment methods on risk estimates in an epidemiologic study of total trihalomethane exposure and spontaneous abortion.J.Exp.Anal.Environ.Epidemiol.11,522-531.
Wang,Z.,Xu,B.,Lin,Y.-L.,Hu,C.-Y.,Tian,F.-X.,Zhang,T.-Y.,et al.,2014.A comparison of iodinated trihalomethane formation from iodide and iopamidol in the presence of organic precursors during monochloramination.Chem.Eng.J.257,292-298.
Wendel,F.M.,Eversloh,C.L.,Machek,E.J.,Duirk,S.E.,Plewa,M.J.,Richardson,S.D.,et al.,2014.Transformation of lopamidol during chlorination.Environ.Sci.Technol.48,12689-12697.
Wendel,F.M.,Ternes,T.A.,Richardson,S.D.,Duirk,S.E.,Pals,J.A.,Wagner,E.D.,Plewa,M.J.,2016.Comparative Toxicity of HighMolecular Weight Iopamidol Disinfection Byproducts.Environmental Science&Technology Letters 3,81-84.
Yang,X.,Shang,C.,Westerhoff,P.,2007.Factors affecting formation of haloacetonitriles,haloketones,chloropicrin and cyanogen halides during chloramination.Water Res.41(6),1193-1200.
Yang,X.,Shang,C.,Lee,W.,Westerhoff,P.,Fan,C.H.,2008.Correlations between organic matter properties and DBPformation during chloramination.Water Res.42,2329-2339.
Ye,T.,Xu,B.,Wang,Z.,Zhang,T.-Y.,Hu,C.-Y.,Lin,L.,et al.,2014.Comparison of iodinated trihalomethanes formation during aqueous chlor(am)ination of different iodinated X-ray contrast media compounds in the presence of natural organic matter.Water Res.66,390-398.
Allard,S.,Tan,J.,Joll,C.A.,von Gunten,U.,2015.Mechanistic study on the formation of Cl-/Br-/I-trihalomethanes during chlorination/chloramination combined with a theoretical cytotoxicity evaluation.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,11105-11114.
APHA,AWWA,WEF,2005.Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.20 ed.American Public Health Association,Washington,DC.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,1999.Oxidation of iodide and hypoiodous acid in the disinfection of natural waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.33,4040-4045.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,2000a.Formation of iodotrihalomethanes during disinfection and oxidation of iodide containing waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.34,2784-2791.
Bichsel,Y.,von Gunten,U.,2000b.Hypoiodous acid:Kinetics of the buffer-catalyzed disproportionation.Water Res.34,3197-3203.
Bougeard,C.M.,Goslan,E.H.,Jefferson,B.,Parsons,S.A.,2010.Comparison of the disinfection by-product formation potential of treated waters exposed to chlorine and monochloramine.Water Res.44(3),729-740.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.10.008.
Bull,R.J.,Birnbaum,L.S.,Cantor,K.P.,Rose,J.B.,Butterworth,B.E.,Pegram,R.,et al.,1995.Water chlorination:Essential process or cancer hazard?Fundam.Appl.Toxicol.28,155-166.
Chen,W.H.,Young,T.M.,2008.NDMA formation during chlorination and chloramination of aqueous diuron solutions.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,1072-1077.
Chen,W.,Westerhoff,P.,Leenheer,J.A.,Booksh,K.,2003.Fluorescence excitation-emission matrix regional integration to quantify spectra for dissolved organic matter.Environ.Sci.Technol.37,5701-5710.
Choi,J.,Valentine,R.L.,2002.Formation of N-nitrosodimethylamine(NDMA)from reaction of monochloramine:A new disinfection by-product.Water Res.36,817-824.
Chuang,Y.-H.,McCurry,D.L.,Tung,H.-H.,Mitch,W.A.,2015.Formation pathways and trade-offs between haloacetamides and haloacetaldehydes during combined chlorination and chloramination of lignin phenols and natural waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,14432-14440.
Duirk,S.E.,Lindell,C.,Cornelison,C.C.,Kormos,J.,Ternes,T.A.,Attene-Ramos,M.,et al.,2011.Formation of toxic iodinated disinfection by-products from compounds used in medical imaging.Environ.Sci.Technol.45,6845-6854.
How,Z.T.,Linge,K.L.,Busetti,F.,Joll,C.A.,2016.Organic chloramines in drinking water:An assessment of formation,stability,reactivity and risk.Water Res.93,65-73.
How,Z.T.,Kristiana,I.,Busetti,F.,Linge,K.L.,Joll,C.A.,2017.Organic chloramines in chlorine-based disinfected watersystems:A critical review.Journal of Environmental Sciences 58,2-18.
Hua,G.,Reckhow,D.A.,2007a.Characterization of disinfection byproduct precursors based on hydrophobicity and molecular size.Environ.Sci.Technol.41,3309-3315.
Hua,G.,Reckhow,D.A.,2007b.Comparison of disinfection byproduct formation from chlorine and alternative disinfectants.Water Research 41,1667-1678.
Huang,H.,Wu,Q.-Y.,Hu,H.-Y.,Mitch,W.A.,2012.Dichloroacetonitrile and dichloroacetamide can form independently during chlorination and chloramination of drinking waters,model organic matters,and wastewater effluents.Environ.Sci.Technol.46,10624-10631.
Hui,F.,Debiemme-Chouvy,C.,2013.Antimicrobial N-halamine polymers and coatings:A review of their synthesis,characterization,and applications.Biomacromolecules 14(3),585-601.
Jafvert,C.T.,Valentine,R.L.,1992.Reaction scheme for the chlorination of ammoniacal water.Environ.Sci.Technol.26,577-586.
Jeong,C.H.,Postigo,C.,Richardson,S.D.,Simmons,J.E.,Kimura,S.Y.,Marinas,B.J.,et al.,2015.Occurrence and comparative toxicity of haloacetaldehyde disinfection byproducts in drinking water.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,13749-13759.
Jones,D.B.,Saglam,A.,Triger,A.,Song,H.,Karanfil,T.,2011.I-THM formation and speciation:preformed monochloramine versus prechlorination followed by ammonia addition.Environ.Sci.Technol.45,10429-10437.
Koivusalo,M.,Jaakkola,J.J.K.,Vartiainen,T.,Hakulinen,T.,Karjalainen,S.,Pukkala,E.,et al.,1994.Drinking-water mutagenicity and gastrointestinal and urinary-tract cancersAn ecological study in Finland.Am.J.Public Health 84,1223-1228.
Krasner,S.W.,Weinberg,H.S.,Richardson,S.D.,Pastor,S.J.,Chinn,R.,Sclimenti,M.J.,et al.,2006.Occurrence of a new generation of disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.40,7175-7185.
Lee,W.,Westerhoff,P.,2009.Formation of organic chloramines during water disinfection-Chlorination versus chloramination.Water Res.43,2233-2239.
Morris,J.C.,Isaac,R.A.,1981.A critical review of kinetic and thermodynamic constants for the aqueous chlorine-ammonia system.In:Jolley,R.L.,Brungs,W.A.,Cotruvo,J.A.,et al.(Eds.),Water Chlorination:Environmental Impact and Health Effects.Ann Arbor Science,Ann Arbor,MI,pp.49-62.
Morris,R.D.,Audet,A.M.,Angelillo,I.F.,Chalmers,T.C.,Mosteller,F.,1992.Chlorination,chlorination by-products,and cancer-Ametaanalysis.Am.J.Public Health 82,955-963.
Nieuwenhuijsen,M.J.,Toledano,M.B.,Eaton,N.E.,Fawell,J.,Elliott,P.,2000.Chlorination disinfection byproducts in water and their association with adverse reproductive outcomes:a review.Occup.Environ.Med.57,73-85.
Parsons,S.A.,Jefferson,B.,Goslan,E.H.,Jarvis,P.R.,Fearing,D.A.,2004.Natural organic matter-The relationship between character and treatability.Water Sci.Technol.:Water Supply 4,43-48.
Plewa,M.J.,Wagner,E.D.,Richardson,S.D.,Thruston,A.D.,Woo,Y.T.,McKague,A.B.,2004.Chemical and biological characterization of newly discovered lodoacid drinking water disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.38,4713-4722.
Plewa,M.J.,Muellner,M.G.,Richardson,S.D.,Fasanot,F.,Buettner,K.M.,Woo,Y.-T.,et al.,2008.Occurrence,synthesis,and mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of haloacetamides:An emerging class of nitrogenous drinking water disinfection byproducts.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,955-961.
Plewa,M.J.,Simmons,J.E.,Richardson,S.D.,Wagner,E.D.,2010.Mammalian cell cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of the haloacetic acids,a major class of drinking water disinfection by-products.Environ.Mol.Mutagen.51,871-878.
Postigo,C.,Richardson,S.D.,Barcelo,D.,2017.Formation of iodotrihalomethanes,iodo-haloacetic acids,and haloacetaldehydes during chlorination and chloramination of iodine containing waters in laboratory controlled reactions.J.Environ.Sci.58,127-134.
Regli,S.,Chen,J.,Messner,M.,Elovitz,M.S.,Letkiewicz,F.J.,Pegram,R.A.,et al.,2015.Estimating potential increased bladder cancer risk due to increased bromide concentrations in sources of disinfected drinking waters.Environ.Sci.Technol.49,13094-13102.
Richardson,S.D.,Plewa,M.J.,Wagner,E.D.,Schoeny,R.,DeMarini,D.M.,2007.Occurrence,genotoxicity,and carcinogenicity of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products in drinking water:A review and roadmap for research.Mutat.Res.-Rev.Mutat.Res.636,178-242.
Richardson,S.D.,Fasano,F.,Ellington,J.J.,Crumley,F.G.,Buettner,K.M.,Evans,J.J.,et al.,2008.Occurrence and mammalian cell toxicity of iodinated disinfection byproducts in drinking water.Environ.Sci.Technol.42,8330-8338.
Shah,A.D.,Mitch,W.A.,2012.Halonitroalkanes,halonitriles,haloamides,and n-nitrosamines:A critical review of nitrogenous disinfection byproduct formation pathways.Environ.Sci.Technol.46,119-131.
Shen,R.Q.,Andrews,S.A.,2013.NDMA formation from aminebased pharmaceuticals-Impact from prechlorination and water matrix.Water Res.47,2446-2457.
Tian,F.-X.,Xu,B.,Lin,Y.-L.,Hu,C.-Y.,Zhang,T.-Y.,Gao,N.-Y.,2014.Photodegradation kinetics of iopamidol by UV irradiation and enhanced formation of iodinated disinfection byproducts in sequential oxidation processes.Water Res.58,198-208.
Vikesland,P.J.,Ozekin,K.,Valentine,R.L.,2001.Monochloramine decay in model and distribution system waters.Water Res.35(7),1766-1776.
Villanueva,C.M.,Cantor,K.P.,Cordier,S.,Jaakkola,J.J.K.,King,W.D.,Lynch,C.F.,et al.,2004.Disinfection byproducts and bladder cancer-A pooled analysis.Epidemiology 15,357-367.
Waller,K.,Swan,S.H.,Windham,S.C.,Fenster,L.,2001.Influence of exposure assessment methods on risk estimates in an epidemiologic study of total trihalomethane exposure and spontaneous abortion.J.Exp.Anal.Environ.Epidemiol.11,522-531.
Wang,Z.,Xu,B.,Lin,Y.-L.,Hu,C.-Y.,Tian,F.-X.,Zhang,T.-Y.,et al.,2014.A comparison of iodinated trihalomethane formation from iodide and iopamidol in the presence of organic precursors during monochloramination.Chem.Eng.J.257,292-298.
Wendel,F.M.,Eversloh,C.L.,Machek,E.J.,Duirk,S.E.,Plewa,M.J.,Richardson,S.D.,et al.,2014.Transformation of lopamidol during chlorination.Environ.Sci.Technol.48,12689-12697.
Wendel,F.M.,Ternes,T.A.,Richardson,S.D.,Duirk,S.E.,Pals,J.A.,Wagner,E.D.,Plewa,M.J.,2016.Comparative Toxicity of HighMolecular Weight Iopamidol Disinfection Byproducts.Environmental Science&Technology Letters 3,81-84.
Yang,X.,Shang,C.,Westerhoff,P.,2007.Factors affecting formation of haloacetonitriles,haloketones,chloropicrin and cyanogen halides during chloramination.Water Res.41(6),1193-1200.
Yang,X.,Shang,C.,Lee,W.,Westerhoff,P.,Fan,C.H.,2008.Correlations between organic matter properties and DBPformation during chloramination.Water Res.42,2329-2339.
Ye,T.,Xu,B.,Wang,Z.,Zhang,T.-Y.,Hu,C.-Y.,Lin,L.,et al.,2014.Comparison of iodinated trihalomethanes formation during aqueous chlor(am)ination of different iodinated X-ray contrast media compounds in the presence of natural organic matter.Water Res.66,390-398.