摘要
艾丽丝·默多克（1919-1999）和让-保罗·萨特(1905-1980)堪称二十世纪的两位文化巨人。他们都同时跨越哲学和文学两个领域。可以说在整个世界文学史上没有哪一位作家像默多克那样恰当地将文学艺术和哲学思想结合在一起。由于兼具哲学家和小说家的双重身份，默多克喜欢在她的作品中，将故事性极强的文学叙事和严肃的哲学思想编织在一起。她把小说当成阐述自己哲学观点和伦理思想的一种工具。她让笔下的主人公为她传递哲学思想，小说成为其哲学思想的形象化演绎，这是其哲理小说中的一个主要特色。默多克一生中创作了26部小说，她还出版了许多哲学专著，其中包括：《萨特——理想的浪漫主者》、《利益的主权》等等。同样，存在主义代表人物萨特也用手中的笔征服了世界。有些学者认为,作为一位著名的无神论存在主义者，萨特是二十世纪最伟大的哲学家。而更为重要的是，他不仅是一位伟大的哲学家，而且还是一位才华横溢的作家、文学评论家和社会活动家。作为一名作家，像默多克一样,萨特也在文学作品中渗透了其哲学思考，使哲学思辨成为其作品的一个鲜明特征。作为一名著名的存在主义哲学家，除了两部哲学巨著和十卷文集之外，他还出版了很多文学作品，其中包括四部小说、十余部剧本和一部短篇小说集等等。从默多克和萨特的创作实践中，我们可以看到，正像默多克所说的那样，文学和哲学可以有机地结合在一起，文学不仅仅是一种交际形式，而且还能担当一部分哲学家要完成的使命。在这方面，默多克成功地树立了一个典范。
默多克的哲理小说深受萨特存在主义的影响。这是因为她早在1940年就与萨特相识，并对萨特的存在主义哲学观点产生了浓厚的兴趣。而且，默多克开始创作的时期正值萨特存在主义盛行的时代。默多克本人也承认萨特对她的影响。她出版的第一部作品就是研究萨特的专著《萨特——浪漫的理性主义者》。默多克是英国小说史上第一个把萨特存在主义哲学思想引入英国文坛的人，其小说的典型风格是：围绕许多拥有不同哲学思想的人物，随着情节的发展，人与人之间的关系产生万花筒般的变化。
本文在吸收已有研究成果的基础上对默多克哲理小说中的萨特存在主义思想进行深入系统的研究。默多克在她的哲理小说中巧妙地向读者传递了萨特存在主义思想。论文以“无神论”思想为开端，继而从“自由”、“痛苦”和“向善”这三个方面讨论默多克哲理小说中的萨特存在主义思想。论文不仅探讨了萨特存在主义思想的最终理想即“人要生活得有意义”，而且也阐述了默多克为实现这一理想所倡导的爱和向善。
本文除导论和结论外，共分四章。
导论由四部分构成。首先，指出本论文的中心论点和研究的重要性。其次，对默多克哲理小说的研究成果进行了批评性的梳理和分析，进而探讨了和本研究相关的萨特存在主义思想的主要观点。最后阐明了本研究的主要目的和论文的主要结构。
第一章从萨特存在主义无神论的视角研究小说《天使的时光》中默多克的宗教观。本章认为，像萨特一样，默多克也认为世间并无上帝。然而，引人注目的是，尽管她也是一位无神论者，但却她热衷于创作涉及宗教话题的哲理小说。本章指出，默多克实际上是一位异常重视宗教的小说家。她认为一个人如果没有任何宗教信仰是危险的。她虽然不信奉传统意义上的上帝，但她心中有她自己的‘上帝’，那就是‘爱’和‘善’。这意味着如果达到了‘爱’和‘善’的境界，人便可以成为其自己的上帝。在这方面，默多克反映了萨特的宗教思想即人期望成为自己的上帝。她进一步声称我们可以失去上帝，但不可放弃‘爱’和“善”。她甚至称自己为‘新基督教徒’。她的这一思想在《时间的天使》和《钟》等多部小说中得以充分的体现。
第二章阐述小说《网之下》中萨特存在主义思想的自由主题。自由观是萨特存在主义思想的精髓,它所关注的是人的精神和思想上的自由。萨特认为自由与生俱来，首先是我们失去了所谓先定本性，仅仅是后来通过行动,靠我们自己去创造我们的本性或存在。默多克的多部小说都反映了这一主题。她不仅赞同萨特的“人注定是自由的”这一论点，而且还创造性地对自由做出了新的解释。她认为自由就是‘清晰地观察现实’,这是一个精神的过程，对此，她特别强调意识，即自我反映能力和使自己避免陷入各种事物困扰的能力。在小说《网之下》中，默多克完美地通过男主人公杰克唐纳修的行动实现了这一过程。
第三章着重探讨了小说《独角兽》中的“痛苦”主题。默多克的多部小说都涉及到了萨特存在主义思想所关注的痛苦主题。她和萨特在这一主题上的观点是一致的。他们都认为，痛苦是人生中普遍存在的。在默多克的哲理小说中，作者生动反映了人的内心世界中的痛苦，或者说是人物在伦理道德上表现出的痛苦。道德上的痛苦源自人物所做的内心世界中的选择。它通常是自相矛盾的。一方面，遭受痛苦者有一种自由的自然愿望，另一方面，闵思苦想，却还是继续接受并加深他的痛苦。根据萨特的观点，人是不能逃避痛苦的，小说《独角兽》中遭受种种苦难的是主人公汉娜，一个美丽、超然、静静承受痛苦，而不作任何反抗的囚犯。她不同寻常的痛苦经历使得她在别人眼里产生一种神秘的色彩，不知不觉占据了他人的想象空间。通过小说,默多克揭示出其本人的矛盾思想:尽管人类认为自己能够自由自在地用理性控制其生活和行为,但事实上,人却受制于潜意识,受制于众多社会决定因素以及其他人为的力量。
第四章通过小说《好与善》讨论“善”的主题。虽然萨特未曾直接论述过这一主题，但他也是一位“道德家”。他认为，人失去了先前的‘上帝存在’的情况下的价值观，必须成为自己的创造者乃至世界的创造者，因此，他必须完全对自己和对他人负责。默多克的道德思想看似和萨特的责任学说并无直接联系，但笔者认为“责任”和“善”是密切相关的。事实上，默多克对道德生活的理解通常来自她和萨特存在主义思想的联系，她的作品常常被看作是对萨特存在主义思想的一种修正。根据她的理论，人们应该把注意力集中在一些有价值的东西上，诸如‘爱’和‘善’。因此，从这个意义上讲，她所追求的‘善’和萨特所坚持的‘责任’是完全一致的。
结论部分重申本文中心论点。笔者通过研究认为，默多克的哲理小说深深地受到了萨特存在主义的影响。萨特存在主义思想已经成为默多克哲理小说中的根深蒂固的一部分。像萨特一样，默多克在小说创作中始终没有放弃把人的存在作为其全部哲学的基础和出发点，总是十分关心人的生存和道德。在她的哲理小说中，最为鲜明的主题就是追求‘爱’和‘向善’。
Murdoch, Dame Iris Jean (1919-1999) and Jean-Paul (1905-1980) Sartre areknown as two cultural giants of the twentieth century who have been involved in theareas of both philosophy and literature. Murdoch values literature as a seriousbusiness that teaches as well as entertains. It can be argued that in the history ofEnglish literature there is perhaps not a novelist who more adequately brokers themarriage of literature and philosophy than Murdoch. Her unique feature in terms ofpost-War British writing was that she successfully combines a career as a philosopherwith that of writing fiction. Because of the double identity as a novelist and aphilosopher, she prefers to use literature as her primary and most effective tool forexpounding her own ideas on philosophy and ethics in her works by adequatelycombining the literary narrative of a great story with her serious philosophicalthinking. Her philosophical fiction, spanning40years, depicts a broad range ofcharacters’ endeavors to find the true meaning of life. The novels have become avisual deduction of her philosophical thinking, which is a main feature of herphilosophical fiction. As an author of26novels, she also publishes manyphilosophical works including: Sartre: Romantic Rationalist, The Sovereignty of Good,Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals, and so on. Similarly, Sartre sets out to conquer theworld with his pen. Some critics claim that as an existentialist, Sartre is the greatestphilosopher of the twentieth century. More importantly, he is not only a greatphilosopher of France, but also a brilliant writer, a literary critic and a social activistof the twentieth century. As a writer, Sartre expresses his philosophical ideas inliterary works, which makes the philosophical thinking as a main feature in his works.As a famous existentialist, besides two major works of philosophy and ten volumes ofessays, he also publishes a lot of literary works including four novels, a dozen plays and screenplays, a volume of stories and so on. From the writing practice of bothMurdoch and Sartre, it can be seen that just as what Murdoch argues, literature andphilosophy can be organically connected. Literature is not only a form ofcommunication, but it also can take over some of the tasks formerly performed byphilosophy. In this respect, Murdoch has set a good example.
The philosophical fiction of Murdoch has been significantly influenced bySartrean existentialism. As early as in1940, she became acquainted with Sartre andwas immediately interested in Sartre’s philosophy. Moreover, she had been creatingthe works in the period exactly when Sartrean existentialism was flourishing.Murdoch herself also acknowledges Sartre’s impact on her. Her first book is amonograph called Sartre: Romantic Rationalist specifically on the research of Sartre.She is the first person in the history of English literature who introduces Sartreanexistentialism into the British literary world. To some degree, many themes in herphilosophical fiction are reminiscent of the Sartrean account. There are always manycharacters who hold different philosophical ideas in her fiction, and with thedevelopment of the plot, the relationship between the characters changes considerably.This is a conspicuous feature of her novels.
This dissertation, on the basis of the current achievements in the research, isintended to make a deep and systematic exploration of Sartrean existentialism inMurdoch’s philosophical fiction. More specifically, it is concerned with how certainconceptual parallels in Sartrean existentialism and Murdoch’s moral philosophy findtheir expression in Murdoch’s philosophical fiction. The dissertation will focus on“death of God”，“quest for freedom”，“existential anguish” and “pursuit ofgoodness” in Murdoch’s philosophical fiction. The dissertation both examines theultimate ideal of Sartrean existentialism of “living a meaningful life” and discussesMurdoch’s advocacy of love and goodness as a way of realizing the ideal.
Besides introduction and conclusion, this dissertation consists of four chapters.
The Introduction falls into four parts. First, it points out the argument andsignificance of the study. Second, it makes a critical survey of Iris Murdoch’sphilosophical fiction. Third, it examines the definition of Sartrean existentialism related to Murdoch’s works. Finally, it presents the purpose and organization of thedissertation.
Chapter one examines Murdoch’s conception of religion in the text of The Timeof the Angels. The chapter holds the point that, similar to Sartre, Murdoch alsobelieves that there is no traditional God. Though, she is an atheist, she conspicuouslylikes to create philosophical novels which evidently are discussing the religiousproblems. The chapter points out that Murdoch, in essence, is a writer whoremarkably pays much attention to religion. She thinks that it is a very dangerousthing if a person loses his religious faith. She emphasizes that she only does notbelieve in the traditional God, but there is her own God in her inner world. Her God isgoodness and love. This means that man can become his own God if he achievesgoodness and love. In this respect, Murdoch reflects Sartre’s conception of religionthat man’s desire is to become his own God. Murdoch asserts that though we can loseGod, we cannot give up goodness and love. She even calls her self ‘neo-Christian.’This notion is perfectly expressed in her novels, such as The Time of the Angels, TheBell and so on.
Chapter two focuses on the perception of freedom, one of the main ideas inSartrean existentialism, in Murdoch’s Under the Net. Sartre’s idea of freedomparticularly concerns the freedom of one’s spirit and mind. He contends that we arethrown into existence first without a predetermined nature and only later do weconstruct our nature or essence through our actions. Murdoch explores this theme innearly all her philosophical fiction. She agrees with Sartre that man is doomed to befree. In addition, she originally gives some fresh meaning to the concept of freedom.She thinks that freedom is “seeing the reality clearly.” It is a process of spiritualexperience of which Murdoch lays emphasis on the importance of consciousness, theability to reflect on itself and to avoid becoming immersed in the world of objects. InUnder the Net, the task is perfectly fulfilled through the action of the male protagonist,Jake Donaghue.
Chapter three discusses the theme of existential anguish in the novel TheUnicorn. This theme frequently appears in Murdoch’s philosophical fiction. Concerning this topic, Murdoch and Sartre share the same belief that “anguish is auniversal element of life.” In Murdoch’s philosophical fiction, she mainly discussesthe inner anguish, i.e. moral anguish of people. Moral anguish results from innerchoice to suffer; it presents a kind of paradox. On the one hand, the sufferer frommoral guilt has a natural desire to be free; on the other hand, he, by meditation,continues to accept and deepen his suffering. According to Sartre, man can not escapefrom existential anguish. In the novel The Unicorn, the heroine Hannah Grean-smith,the beautiful and calm prisoner, quietly bears the anguish without any objection. Herunusual experience of anguish makes her cover a mystery color in other people’s eyeswhich indiscernibly occupies their imaginary space. In her novel, Murdoch disclosesthe author’s contradictory thoughts that human beings think that they can freely andreasonably control their lives and their action, but in essence, they are controlled bytheir sub-consciousness, as well as many other social forces and other human powers.
Chapter four studies the theme of quest for moral goodness in the novel The Niceand the Good. As many critics point out, Sartre is a moralist who believes that,because of ‘the death of God’, man loses “the priori table of values”. Therefore, manis absolutely responsible not only for what he does but also for what he is. Murdoch’smoral scheme is closely related to Sartre’s ideas. Some critics claim that Murdoch’sresponses to moral life arise from her contact with Sartrean existentialism. Her workscan be often seen as a revision of Sartre’s philosophy. According to Murdoch, manshould focus his attention on certain values, such as love and goodness, which isconsistent with the Sartre’s theory of moral responsibility.
The Conclusion section reiterates the argument of the dissertation. Murdoch’snovels have been greatly influenced by Sartrean existentialism. Sartreanexistentialism has become an ineradicable part in Murdoch’s ideas. Just like Sartre,she always insists that the foundation and the threshold of her whole philosophy isattention to man’s existence and morality. The distinctive theme of her philosophicalfiction is to quest for love and goodness.
引文
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38Murdoch, Iris. Existentialists and Mystics: Writings on Philosophy and Literature.ed. Peter J. Conradi London: Chatto&Windus,1997, p.338
39Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.20
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4Jean-Paul Sartre, The Flies in No Exit and Three Other Plays, trans. Stuart Gilbert.New York: Vintage,1955, p.122.
5Contat, Michel and Rybalka, Richard. Selected Prose: The Writings of Jean-PaulSartre, vol.2. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press,1974, p.250
6Duignan, Brian. The100Most Influential Philosophers of All Time. New York:Britannica Educational Publishing,2010, p.11
7Maritain, Jacques. Moral Philosophy: An Historical and Critical Survey of the GreatSystems. London: Geoffrey Bles,1964, p.266
8Martin, Priscilla and Rowe, Anne. Iris Murdoch: A Literary Life. London and NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.40
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11Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010
12Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.160
13Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, P.106
14Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.161
15Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.508
16Ibid., p.487
17Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.159
18Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.419
19Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.157
20Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.146
21Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.162
22S. Ramanathan. Iris Murdoch: Figures of Good. Houndsmills, Basingstoke, London:MacMillan Press,1990, p.23
23P. S. Hawkins. The Language of Grace: Flannery O’Connor, Walker Percy, andIris Murdoch. Cambridge: Cowley Publications,1993. p.91
24Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.419
25Ibid., p.484
26Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.344
27Alford, C. Fred. Rethinking Freedom: Why Freedom Has Lost Its Meaning andWhat Can Be Done to Save it. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005, p.90
1Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.64
2Begnal, Kate. Iris Murdoch: A Reference Guide. Boston, Mass.: G.K. Hall,1987,p.45
3Ibid., p.69
4Janik, Vicki K; Janik, Del Ivan and Nelson, Emmanuel S. Modern British WomenWriters: An A-to-Z Guide. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.,2002, p.389
5Hoven, Adrian Van Den and Leak, Andrew. Sartre Today: A Centenary Celebration.New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books,2005, p.78
6Webber, Jonathan. Reading Sartre: On Phenomenology and Existentialism. Londonand New York: Routledge Taylor&Francis Group,2011, p.ix
7Bass, Jennifer Durham. World Cultural Leaders of the Twentieth&Twenty-FirstCenturies. Millerton, NY: Grey House Publishing, Inc.,2007, p.849
8Bunnin, Nicholas and Yu Jiyuan. The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,2004, p.236
9Ibid., p.54
10Hoven, Adrian Van Den and Leak, Andrew. Sartre Today: A Centenary Celebration.New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books,2005, p.82
11Jean-Paul, Sartre, Existentialism, tr. Bernard Frechtman. New York: ThePhilosophical Library,1947, p.58
12Simon, Blackburn. The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford: OxfordUniversity Press,1996, p.130
13Alford, C. Fred. Rethinking Freedom: Why Freedom Has Lost Its Meaning andWhat Can Be Done to Save it. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005, p.89
14Ibid., p.89
15Murdoch, Iris. Existentialists and Mystics: Writings on Philosophy and Literature.ed. Peter J. Conradi London: Chatto&Windus,1997, p.75
16Murdoch, Iris. The Sandcastle. London: Penguin Books Ltd,1957, p.210
17Jean-Paul, Sartre. Truth and Existence. Chicago and London: The University ofChicago Press,1992, p.48
18Napierkowski, Marie Rose. Novels for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context, andCriticism on Commonly Studied Novels, Vol.18. Detroit: Gale,1998, p.222
19Ibid., p.223
20Hauerwas, Stanley M. Wilderness Wanderings: Probing Twentieth-CenturyTheology and Philosophy. Oxford: Westview Press,1997, p.160
21Bass, Jennifer Durham. World Cultural Leaders of the Twentieth&Twenty-FirstCenturies. Millerton, NY: Grey House Publishing, Inc.,2007, p.xxvi
22Begnal, Kate. Iris Murdoch: A Reference Guide. Boston, Mass.: G.K. Hall,1987,p.69
23Hoven, Adrian Van Den and Leak, Andrew. Sartre Today: A Centenary Celebration.New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books,2005, p.33
24Conradi, Peter J. The Saint and the Artist: A Study of the Fiction of Iris Murdoch.London: Harper Collins,2001, p.xviii
25Alford, C. Fred. Rethinking Freedom: Why Freedom Has Lost Its Meaning andWhat Can Be Done to Save it. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005, p.92
26Maritain, Jacques. Moral Philosophy: An historical and critical survey of the greatsystems. London: Geoffrey Bles,1964, p.266
27In Sartre: Romantic Rationalist, p.71, Iris Murdoch writes:“Sartre prizes sincerity,the ability to see through shams, both social shams and the devices of one’s ownheart. He prizes Reason in itself, as a manifestation of the spirit, rather thanprizing it as a means to an end.” As amateur philosopher of language, Hugoshares with Sartre’s character, Antoine Roquentin, the belief that “language andthe world… are hopelessly divided from each other.”(Sartre: RomanticRationalist, p.43)
28Alford, C. Fred. Rethinking Freedom: Why Freedom Has Lost Its Meaning andWhat Can Be Done to Save it. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005, p.89
29Antonaccio, Maria. Picturing the Human: The Moral Thought of Iris Murdoch.Oxford: Oxford University Press,2000, p.66
30Bass, Jennifer Durham. World Cultural Leaders of the Twentieth&Twenty-FirstCenturies. Millerton, NY: Grey House Publishing, Inc.,2007, p.845
31Alford, C. Fred. Rethinking Freedom: Why Freedom Has Lost Its Meaning andWhat Can Be Done to Save it. New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2005, p.93
1Napierkowski, Marie Rose. Novels for Students: Presenting Analysis, Context, andCriticism on Commonly Studied Novels, Vol.18. Detroit: Gale,1998, p.307
2Murdoch, Iris. The Unicorn. New York: Avon Books,1963, p.223
3Protevi, John. The Edinburgh Dictionary of Continental Philosophy. Edinburgh:Edinburgh University Press,2005, p.29
4Michelman, Stephen. Historical Dictionary of Existentialism. Lanham and Toronto:The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,2008, p.36
5Weston, Michael. Philosophy, Literature and Human Good. London and New York:Routledge,2001, p.21
6Ibid., p.21
7Bloom, Harold. Sin and Redemption. New York: Infobase Publishing,2010, p.105
8Young Julian. The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. London and New York:Routledge,2003, p.139
9Michelman, Stephen. Historical Dictionary of Existentialism. Lanham and Toronto:The Scarecrow Press, Inc.,2008, p.27
10Young Julian. The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. London and New York:Routledge Taylor&Francis Group,2003, p.42
11Young Julian. The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. London and New York:Routledge,2003, p.144
12Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.93
13———. The Black Prince. New York: Penguin,1975, p.9
14Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.189
15Rowe, Anne. Iris Murdoch: A Reassessment.New York: Palgrave Macmillan,2007,p.77
16Weston, Michael. Philosophy, Literature and Human Good. London and New York:Routledge,2001, p.81
17Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.45
18Martin, Priscilla and Rowe, Anne. Iris Murdoch: A Literary Life. London and NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.166
19Young, Julian. The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. London and New York:Routledge Taylor&Francis Group,2003, p.159
20Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, P.45
21Frank, Baldanza. Iris Murdoch. Woodbridge, Connecticut: Twayne Publishers,1975,p.105
22Rubin, Rabinovitz. Iris Murdoch. New York: Columbia University Press,1968,P.308
23Murdoch, Iris. Against Dryness: A Polemical Sketch. Encounter, XVI, January,1961, p.20
24———.The Sublime and the Good. Chicago Review13,3Autumn,1959:42-55
1Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.89
2Ibid.,p.344
3Firth, Ramound. Elements of Social Organization. London: Tavistock Publications,1951, p.183
4Bunnin, Nicholas and Yu Jiyuan. The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,2004, p.228
5Ibid., p.228
6Bloom, Harold. Jean-Paul Sartre. New York, N.Y.: Chelsea House Publications,2001, p.7
7Hoven, Adrian Van Den and Leak, Andrew. Sartre Today: A Centenary Celebration.New York and Oxford: Berghahn Books,2005, p.86
8Ibid., p.33
9Ibid., P.85
10Marino, Gordon. Ethics: the Essential Writings. New York and London: RandomHouse Group,2010, p.329
11Sartre, Jean-Paul. Existentialism and Humanism. Trans. Mairet, Philip. London:Methuen&Co. Ltd.,1966, pp.29-30
12Murdoch, Iris. Sartre: Romantic Rationalist. Cambridge and New Haven: YaleUniversity Press,1960, p.49
13———. Against Dryness: A Polemical Sketch. Encounter, XVI.January,1961, p.7
14Murdoch, Iris. The Nuns and the Soldiers. London: Penguin,1980, p.472
15Weston, Michael. Philosophy, Literature and Human Good. London and New York:Routledge,2001, p.69
16Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.7
17Weston, Michael. Philosophy, Literature and Human Good. London and New York:Routledge,2001, p.69
18The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.59
19Baldwin, Anna. Platonism and the English Imagination. Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,1994, p.332
20Ibid., p.332
21Pedro Alexis Tabensky, Pedro Alexis. The Positive Function of Evil. New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2009, p.81
22The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, pp.91-92
23Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysical and Ethics, in The Nature of Metaphysics, ed. David F.Pears. London: Macmillan Co., Ltd., and New York: St. Martin’s Press,1965,p.109.
24Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.30
25Ibid., p.61
26Ibid., p.71
27Aronson, Ronald and Hoven, Adrian Van Den. Sartre Alive. Detroit: Wayne StateUniversity Press,1991, p.23
28Antonaccio, Maria. Picturing the Human: The Moral Thought of Iris Murdoch.Oxford: Oxford University Press,2000, p.71
29Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.89
30Bayley, John. Iris and Her Friends: A memoir of Memory and Desire. New Yorkand London: W.W. Norton&Company, Inc.,2000, p.I
31Baldwin, Anna. Platonism and the English Imagination. Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press,1994, p.336
32Ibid., p.337
33Jeanson, Francis. Sartre and the Problem of Morality. Bloomington: IndianaUniversity Press,1980, p.202
34Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.143
35Ibid., p.143
36Murdoch, Iris. Metaphysics as a Guide to Morals. London: Penguin,1994, p.249
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2Existentialists and Mystics: Writings on Philosophy and Literature. ed. Peter J.Conradi London: Chatto&Windus,1997, p.27
3Begnal, Kate. Iris Murdoch: A Reference Guide. Boston, Mass.: G.K. Hall,1987,p.69
4Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.78
5O`Donohoe, Benedict and Elveton, Roy. Sartre’s Second Century. Cambridge:Cambridge Scholars Publishing,2009, P.7
6Raffoul, Francois. The Origins of Responsibility. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,2010, p.128
7Young Julian. The Death of God and the Meaning of Life. London and New York:Routledge,2003, p.144
8Panza, Christopher and Gale, Gergory. Existentialism for Dummies. Indianapolis,Indiana: Wiley Publishing, Inc.,2008, p.12
9Daigle, Christine. Existentialist Thinkers and Ethics. Montreal, Quebec:McGill-Queen’s University Press,2006, p.99
10Murdoch, Iris. The Sovereignty of Good. New York: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1970, p.56
11Raffoul, Francois. The Origins of Responsibility. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,2010, p.124
12Moor, Brooke Noel and Bruder, Kenneth. Philosophy: The Power of Ideas. NewYork: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.,2008, p.166
13Murdoch, Iris. Sartre: Romantic Rationalist. Cambridge and New Haven: YaleUniversity Press,1960, p.138
14Eyre, Richard. Sartre and Me. The Guardian, Wednesday3May2000
15Martin, Priscilla and Rowe, Anne. Iris Murdoch: A Literary Life. London and NewYork: Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.40
16Rowe, Anne and Horner, Avril. Iris Murdoch and Morality. London and New York:Palgrave Macmillan,2010, p.142
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