探寻救世的圣容
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摘要
对基督视觉化形象的塑造,建立在反偶像崇拜传统的犹太教的基础上,《摩西十诫》中的“第二诫律”明确界定反对偶像崇拜,所以在其后的基督教历史中,多次发生了针对基督形象的“圣像毁坏”运动。其中影响最大,意义最为久远的有两次:一次发生在公元8-9世纪的拜占庭地区,另一次发生在公元16世纪的宗教改革时期的尼德兰地区。
     基督圣像被毁坏的过程,也是基督形象被视觉化艺术塑造的过程。基督形象在最初的确立过程中,借鉴或直接挪用了异神教的神像;同时也是在对异神教的偶像毁坏中,确立了基督形象的圣像。在对基督形象的“圣像毁坏”过程中,不仅基督圣像被毁坏,而且有关基督形象确立的神学理论也在期间得到争议,“道成肉身”和“三位一体”的基督论,得以被东正教认可,又部分地被天主教接受。无形的不可见的天主,经由“道”,在基督肉体上得以显现,以示拯救世人的大恩。所以基督才有了可以描绘被的人形肖像,体现为圣灵、圣父和圣子的“三位一体”的图像-象征体系,这样的基督形象被称为基督“圣像”。
     “圣像毁坏”对基督形象的影响,不仅仅是对基督圣像本身的毁坏;而且在毁坏过程中,必定促成基督形象的替代物或象征物出现,如在拜占庭“圣像毁坏”运动中有象征基督罹难的十字架,宗教改革时期运动中有象征着基督的圣餐,以及替代基督形象的圣经文本图像;反映出基督形象的持续性,以及信仰对视觉形象的依赖。
     “圣像毁坏”对基督形象的重要影响不是导致基督圣像的彻底消亡,而是影响到基督形象的塑造和不同理解。拜占庭“圣像毁坏”运动结束后,掀起了新一轮塑造基督形象的热潮,而且出现了我们现在常见的基督形象的“标准圣像”;对基督形象的“崇敬”不同于“崇拜”的神学理解,以区分“圣像崇敬”与“偶像崇拜”;同时基督形象的标准圣像和象征体系,也影响到文艺复兴较为完美的基督形象的出现。而宗教改革的“圣像毁坏”运动,影响到基督形象朝现实朴素的写实风格,和激情浪漫的巴洛克风格两个不同方向发展,同时影响到其后艺术家对基督形象非神圣化的描绘。所以,“圣像毁坏”对基督形象的影响,不仅导致了基督形象的统一和标准化,同时也导致了对基督形象多样化的描绘,并且持续地影响到现当代社会对基督形象的理解和塑造。
The visual image of Christ was set up on the basis of traditionalJudaism with which idol worship,"The Second Commandment" of The TenCommandments clearly opposed to idol worship, then it has occurred morethan once "iconoclasm" campaign against the image of Christ in thesubsequent history of Christianity. There are two of the most great anddistant effects: once in Byzantine in the year8-9of the century, anotherof the reformation in the Netherlands in the16th century。
     The process of the image of Christ destroyed is what image of Christwere shaped by Visual Arts. The image of Christ not only had beenreferenced or directly misappropriated with different gods’ statues inthe early process; but also established on the destruction of the idolof gods. During of "Iconoclasm", the imagery of Christ not only isdestroyed, and the theological theory of Christ was established."Incarnation" and "The doctrine of the Trinity" on the Christ wererecognized by the Orthodox Church, and were partly accepted by theCatholic Church. Invisible God appeared on the flesh of Christ throughthe Logos and show the dean of salvation. Portrait of Christ can be paintedby human form with which embodies the Holy Spirit, the Father and the sonof God in the image-symbol system of "The doctrine of the Trinity ", suchimage of Christ is called "Icon".
     " Iconoclasm " effects to the image of Christ not just has destroyedthe imagery of Christ itself; and many substitutes or symbols of the imageof Christ has been appeared in the process of destruction, such as, theCross of Christ for sacrifice in the Byzantine" Iconoclasm ", the HolyCommunion and tekstborden symbolized and alternated Christ in reformationmovement,reflecting the faith and reliance is dependent on visual imageof Christ.
     It important influence of "Iconoclasm" on the image of Christ was notthe cause of the imagery of Christ completely died out, but was differenteffect and understanding on the image of Christ. A new round of upsurgeof the image of Christ creation had been set up during the end of Byzantine " Iconoclasm ", and appeared common "standard Icon" of Christ; it wasdifferent theological understanding between "venerate" and "adore" todistinguish "Icon reverence" from "Idol worship"; The standard system andsymbolism of the image of Christ also affected the most perfect image ofChrist in the Renaissance."Iconoclasm "of reformation had affected theimage of Christ in two different directions between the real simple styleof realism and the Baroque style of romance and passion, also affectedsome subsequent artist to portray non-consecrated of Christ's image.Therefore,"Iconoclasm" effects on the image of Christ not only led tothe harmonization and standardization of the image of Christ, but alsoled to a diversification of the image of Christ, and continued to affecttoday's understanding and creation of the image of Christ.
引文
5Negating the image:Case Studies in Iconoclasm[G].Edited by Anne McClanan and Jeff Johnson.Burlington:Ashgate Publishing Company.2005.65-68.
    6(俄)C.H.布尔加科夫.东正教[M].徐凤林译.商务印书馆,2001.175.
    7巴尔塔萨.神学美学导论[M].曹卫东、刁承俊译.上海:三联书店,2002.
    11(德)亨利克·菲弗著.基督形象的艺术神学[M].萧潇译.北京:中国社会科学出版社.2005.7-8.
    12图像,尤其是圆雕,自9世纪以来,在中世纪艺术中经历了一次引人瞩目的复兴。而迄今为止,学者们仍无法很好地解释,基督教在使用图像方面所发生的根本性改变的原因。
    13Negating the image:Case Studies in Iconoclasm[G].Edited by Anne McClanan and Jeff Johnson.Burlington:Ashgate Publishing Company,2005.68.
    14对这段文字的注释手稿可追溯到1022年之后,但它是对加洛林时期一份在德国富尔达地区(Fulda)的原稿内容的复制。Himmelmann在其著作中讨论了这段文字内容中对异教诸神的描述。
    15M.Edwards.Optatus against the Donatists.(Translated Texts for Historians).Liverpool:Liverpool University Press.1997.27.
    16例如,所罗门就崇拜过他的妻子所信仰的神。
    17Negating the image:Case Studies in Iconoclasm[G].Edited by Anne McClanan and Jeff Johnson.Burlington:Ashgate Publishing Company,2005.65-68.
    18Brian B. Schmidt.The Aniconic Tradition: On Reading Images and Viewing Texts[C]. in DianaVikander Edelman, ed., The Triumph of Eiehim: From Yahwisms to Judaisms.Grand Rapids: Eerdmans,1996.96.
    19《约翰福音》第1章第14节:“道成了肉身,住在我们中间,充充满满的有恩典有真理。”《约翰福音》
    21基督教的不同宗派在基督位格问题上的主张有共通之处,也有分歧。有的派别如安提约基学派的奈斯多
    利(Nestorius),主张基督在道成肉身时放弃了神的属性,强调基督的人性,强调神人二性在基督里面的区分;而有的派别如亚历山大学派的区利罗(CyrillusAlexandrinus),则主张基督始终都有神的属性,强调神人二性在基督里面的合一。公元325年的尼西亚会议为了打击异端而宣称:“基督是完全的神!”;而到了公元451年,迦克墩会议又被迫承认“基督是完全的人!”这而引起“二性如何在基督身上结合”的更大的争论,此类问题一直困扰着教会,既是神学家辩论的主题,又可能是正统与异端的分界点,更是早期东、西方教会分裂的重要起因之一,这也是东、西方教会对待圣像不同态度,形成支持圣像与反对圣像的神学根源。如果强调基督的神性,神的形象是不可见的,神的造像将被否定;如果认同基督的人性,或基督是神人二性、二格的合一,那么神的造像可以通过基督——人的肖像得以显现。
    22拜占庭又称为“东罗马帝国”,它是在古代罗马帝国的基础上发展演变而来的。16世纪法国著名历史学家热罗姆·沃尔夫(Jerome Wolf)在整理出版拜占庭历史资料时,第一个使用“拜占庭”来称呼以君士坦丁堡为中心的东方帝国。在法国卢浮宫出版了由许多法国学者合作编辑的《拜占庭历史资料大全》后,“拜占庭”这一名称正式成为学术界的专门术语
    23参见:(英)扎内奇.西方中世纪艺术史[M].陈平译.杭州:中国美术学院出版社,2006.38.
    24陶理.基督教二千年史──自第一世纪至当代[M].李伯明、林牧野译.香港:海天书楼,2001.254-255.
    25培克尔.基督教史略[M].萧为元译.香港:浸信会出版社,1981.134-135.
    26(美)威利斯顿·沃尔克.基督教会史[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1992.133.
    27(美)威利斯顿·沃尔克.基督教会史[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1992.167-169.
    28(美)威利斯顿·沃尔克.基督教会史[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1992.127.
    29对于这一结论孟他努主义(Montanism)可以做一个典型的补充例子。在公元2世纪早期,多数教会对于“基督复临”的盼望转为失望甚而冷淡,而使徒时代教会中所常感受到的“圣灵感动”也在这个世纪中近乎消失;一种重新渴望圣灵临到教会的思想,渴慕古代先知的预言,以及认为末日迫近的思想,造就了“孟他努主义”。参见:华尔克,谢受灵、赵毅之译《基督教会史》,香港:基督教文艺出版社,2005版。
    30德谟克利特认为,每一种物体都发射特殊种类的原子,这种原子称作“爱多拉”(eidola),它是物体的复本。
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    39David Freedberg.The Power of image: Studies in the History and Theory of Response [M].Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1989.
    40再如:罗马教廷中犹太圣殿常被隐藏在帷幕之后,帷幕的图像为有着炽天使形象的上帝战车,隐喻上帝;而皇冠和家族的徽章常用来象征皇帝。
    41参见:(南)奥斯特洛格尔斯基著.拜占廷帝国[M].陈志强译.青海:青海人民出版社2006.32-34.
    42早期基督教教会曾建立了五大教区,即罗马、君士坦丁堡、耶路撒冷、亚历山大城和安提柯教区。
    43公元381年提奥多西一世(379-395年)在君士坦丁堡召集了第二届基督教大会,公元413年提奥多西二
    世(408-450年)在伊佛索召集了第三届基督教大会,此后,第四届察尔西顿基督教大会和第五届君士坦丁堡基督教大会分别由马尔西安(450-457年)和查士丁尼一世(527-565年)于451年和553年主持召开。参见:C1. Richards. The Papes and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages[M]. London,1979.186-191.
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    54所谓大教会,就是指反对各种异端邪说的,而坚持基督教各种教派共同发展的教会。
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    59柏拉图的原型理论在基督形象中运用:上帝被解释为创造物的唯一道路,一位技艺娴熟的手艺人,天赋
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    97C.A.凡·斯威格切姆(C.A.van Swigchem)开拓性地考察了早期荷兰新教教堂,将此类图像称为“tekstborden”(“文本图像”或“文本绘画”),将其称为“圣经绘画”更能够概括它的功能,因为大多数这种绘画都涉及圣经要义的新教理解。
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    103改革派神学家还指出,古代异教徒没有确切地设想他们的偶像就是他们的神,或者说他们的神看上去确实如图像那样;那么相反,异教徒要控制其神,图像提供了完善的资源。所以,根据改革派的观点,基督教使用的神的形象,不能完全破除异教和其代表的一种自我神化的危险情调。《摩西十诫》的影响不仅在基督教的信仰世界里,而且影响到其它的宗教。犹太教遵守十诫,将其视为本民族对上帝忠诚的誓言。穆罕默德也认为摩西是真正的先知,《摩西十诫》也随着伊斯兰教的传播,成为伊斯兰教的重要教义。犹太教和伊斯兰教甚至更加恪守“第二诫律”,反对任何形式的偶像崇拜,将神化为人形的图像被绝对地禁止。伊斯兰教和基督教发生冲突时,伊斯兰教也曾借“第二诫律”,对基督教的圣像大肆毁坏。
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