摘要
中国制造业的产业结构调整与升级,其本质就是工业化建设问题。作为发展中国家的中国,一直在努力寻求自己的工业化道路。在经历了急进的赶超和渐进的开放之后,人们对中国未来的工业化道路又进入了更深层次的思考阶段。无论在理论上和实践中人们对比较优势理论存在多么大的争议,比较优势思想无疑在深深地影响着中国的对外开放和工业化战略。实行比较优势战略,能否让中国渐进地实现制造业产业结构的升级,能否让中国在不久的将来赶上并超过发达的工业国,这是众多学者苦苦探求的深层次问题。应该说,并不存在万能的、对所有国家都适用的比较优势发展战略。20世纪60、70年代以来,学者们关于进口替代和出口导向的争议已经充分地说明了这一关键问题,即每一个国家都应该找寻适合于自身国情的发展战略。因此,探讨比较优势理论在中国制造业产业结构调整与升级方面的适用性,既具有深刻的理论意义,也是中国未来对外开放发展战略的现实所需。
本文基于中国正在以更为开放的措施融入经济全球化和正在积极探索具有本国特色的新型工业化道路两方面的考虑,探讨中国制造业在开放经济条件下的产业结构调整问题,试图回答如下问题:其一,中国制造业能否依据比较优势进行产业结构调整,即比较优势能否内生变化并促进产业结构优化?其二,从要素禀赋角度分析,资本积累是如何影响我国制造业比较优势变化及产业结构调整的?
根据本文的研究领域和研究特点,在研究方法上,本文将规范分析与实证分析相结合、理论分析与经验研究相结合、静态分析与动态分析相结合,并将中国制造业产业结构升级界定为两类情况:一类是产业间升级,指产业结构由劳动密集型产业为主转向资本和技术密集型产业为主,实现主导产业的有序更替;另一类是产业内结构升级,产业由低质量特征转向高质量特征、由低加工度特征转向高加工度特征,提升现有产业的国际竞争力。
从已有的理论研究来看,比较优势的产生来源于许多变量。国家间的要素禀赋差异会引致不同国家基于要素成本差异而形成的比较优势,国家间技术水平不同或劳动生产率不同则是形成不同国家比较优势的另一个重要源泉。此外,国家间在需求、制度质量等方面的差异也会形成不同国家的比较优势。本文的侧重点放在要素禀赋上,分别通过对产业间分工、产业内分工和产品内分工在中国制造业表现的经验研究以及理论分析,探讨比较优势的内生机制,重点探讨影响要素禀赋变化、主要是资本积累的内在机制,研究比较优势与产业结构升级的良性循环机制,即当一国依据比较优势调整本国的产业结构时,会因为生产活动更具有效率而带来本国更高的产出水平,在既定的储蓄率条件下,储蓄规模的扩大能够支撑持续的资本积累,从而改善本国的要素禀赋条件,提升本国的比较优势和产业结构。
本文共包括六章内容。其基本结构和主要内容如下:第1章是导论,介绍本文的研究背景、研究目的、研究方法、主要内容和创新点以及其他需要说明的事项。第2章是关于开放经济下比较优势与产业结构调整研究的文献综述,对已有的产业间分工、产业内分工和产品内分工等各种类型国际分工条件下比较优势决定与产业结构调整的文献进行梳理和分析,从现有文献中探讨比较优势的决定因素、比较优势理论的运用范围以及动态比较优势的实现机制和路径。第3章是开放经济下比较优势长期演化动态与产业结构调整的理论研究,以开放经济的新古典增长模型和内生增长模型为基础,探讨比较优势决定与产业结构调整的理论框架和分析方法,然后再借鉴这些基础理论的分析方法,研究通过资本积累改变比较优势继而转换产业结构的路径和机制,为我国制造业产业结构升级的经验分析奠定理论基础。第4章是中国制造业比较优势与产业间结构升级分析。在我国对外开放和贸易自由化程度不断加深的背景下,检验我国制造业各行业的比较优势变化状况,以及比较优势变化对我国制造业出口结构和生产结构的影响,并对前一章的理论分析与我国制造业的现实相对照,以检验我国制造业利用比较优势升级产业结构的内在机理。第5章是中国制造业比较优势与产业内结构升级分析。先分别对我国制造业各行业在产业内分工和产品内分工中的比较优势特征进行分析,然后再将二者结合起来,分析资本积累对我国制造业比较优势和产业内结构升级的影响。第6章是开放经济下中国制造业产业结构升级的路径及措施,并对全文的研究结论进行总结。
相比于已有的研究文献而言,本文在以下几方面进行了探索性的研究:
第一,本文以开放经济的新古典增长模型和内生增长模型为基础,一方面从理论上分析了资本积累对一国比较优势变化和产业结构调整的影响,另一方面利用协整计量检验方法验证了我国制造业资本的边际产出在1992-2006年的动态变化中并没有因为资本积累而下降,从而指出了我国进行资本积累的一个重要推动力量。
第二,本文通过利用UN comtrade数据库检索出来的最高至SITC(Rev.3)四位数分类基础上的万余进出口数据,计算出了我国制造业各行业从1992年至2006年十五年间的比较优势指标,并结合相应年度国内统计年鉴提供的制造业分行业数据,分析了我国制造业比较优势变化的要素禀赋特征,以及我国制造业出口结构和生产结构的相关性。分析结果认为,虽然劳动密集型行业仍是比较优势的主导行业,但部分资本相对密集的行业也正成为比较优势行业或其比较劣势在减小,我国制造业出口结构与生产结构相关程度的不断提高,为我国制造业通过比较优势引导产业结构调整奠定了坚实的基础。
第三,本文将产业内分工和产品内分工结合起来,构建了一个产业内升级的研究方法,提出在获取更高附加值的利益驱动下,企业会自主进行资本和技术积累,从而促进产业结构升级。我国制造业的资本积累已促使了绝大多数行业资本/劳动比例状况不同程度的改善,我国制造业总的资本/劳动比例变化也主要是体现在行业内部,这为我国制造业未来实现产业内的结构转型和升级创造了条件。
比较优势理论古老而又常新,比较优势理论体系的包容性和开放性确保了该理论的强大生命力。在经济日益走向全球化的今天,国际分工越来越细地从产业间渗透到产业内,又进一步渗透到产品内部不同的生产阶段之间,这使得比较优势理论能够广泛地应用于产业间分工、产业内分工和产品内分工的研究,从而成为产业结构升级研究的一个重要研究领域。
Industrialization is the essence of China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading.As a developing country,China has ever been exploring its own industrialization road,especially after radical catching-up and progressive opening-up. Whether how much dispute people have on comparative advantage theory,it affects China's strategies of openness to the outside world and industrialization deeply.The key question for scholars to explore hardly is whether comparative advantage strategy could help China upgrade manufacturing industrial structure gradually and overtake industrialized countries in the near future.There isn't universal comparative advantage strategy indeed.It has been proved that every country has a development strategy suitable to itself,by the dispute about import substitution and export orientation since 1960's and 1970's.Therefore.it is significant academically and practically to explore the suitability of comparative advantage theory to China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrade.
Based on China's quick involvement in economic globalization and active exploration of new industrialization road with Chinese characteristics,the thesis tries to explore China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading in the open economy and answer the following questions:First.could China's manufacturing industry upgrade according to comparative advantage? That is.could comparative advantage change endogenously and improve industrial structure? Second,how does capital accumulation affect the change of comparative advantage and the adjustment of industrial structure of China's manufacturing industry from the standpoint of factor endowment?
According to its research area and characteristics,the thesis integrates normative analysis with positive analysis,integrates theoretical analysis with empirical analysis. integrates static analysis with dynamic analysis,and divides China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading into two types:One type is inter-industrial upgrading which means the dominant industries transform from labor-intensive ones to capitalintensive ones orderly,the other type is intra-industrial upgrading which means the industrial characteristics transform from low quality,and low degree of processing to high quality and high degree of processing,with competitiveness increase of the existing industry.
From the existing theoretical research,comparative advantage originates from many variables,such as inter-state differences in factor endowment,level of technology,demand,quality of system,and so on.Factor endowment is the research angle of the thesis,which explores the endogenous mechanism of comparative advantage,focusing on the internal mechanism of factor endowment change. especially capital accumulation,through empirical research and theoretical analysis on the performance of China's manufacturing industry,participating in inter-industry, intra-industry and intra-product specialization.The thesis attempts to study a benign cycle mechanism of comparative advantage and industrial structure upgrading,that is. when a country,adjusts its industrial structure according to comparative advantage,it will acquire much output as production activities are more efficient.At fixed saving rate,the expansion of the scale of savings can support the continued accumulation of capital,thereby improve the country's factor endowment conditions and upgrade its comparative advantage and industrial structure.
Six chapters are included in the thesis whose basic structure and main contents are as follows:Chapter 1 is introduction,introducing the research background. purpose of the study,research methodology,the main content and innovation,as well as other explanations.Chapter 2 is literature review on comparative advantage and industrial structure adjustment in the open economy,analyzing the literature of comparative advantage and industrial structure adjustment under inter-industry. intra-industry and intra-product specialization respectively,exploring the determinants and applying areas of comparative advantage as well as the realization mechanism and the path of dynamic comparative advantage from the existing literature.Chapter 3 is theoretical research on long-term evolution of comparative advantage and industrial structure upgrading in the open economy,exploring theoretical framework and analytical methods of comparative advantage and industrial structure adjustment on the basis of neoclassical and endogenous growth models,studying the path and conversion mechanism of the industrial structure through the change of comparative advantage due to capital accumulation so as to build a theoretical base for the empirical analysis of China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading.Chapter 4 is analysis on comparative advantage and inter-industrial structure upgrading of China's manufacturing industry,testing the change of comparative advantage of China's manufacturing industry and its impact on export and production structures under the background of China's opening up and the constant deepening of trade liberalization,comparing the reality of China's manufacturing industry with the theoretical analysis of the previous chapter so as to test the internal mechanism of China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading according to comparative advantage.Chapter 5 is analysis on comparative advantage and intra-industrial structure upgrading of China's manufacturing industry,analyzing characteristics of comparative advantage of China's manufacturing industry participating in intra-industry and intra-product specialization first,and then through the combination of both,analyzing the impact of capital accumulation on comparative advantage and intra-industrial structure upgrading.Chapter 6 is about the path and measures of China's manufacturing industrial structure upgrading in the open economy,as well as conclusions of the thesis.
Compared to the existing literature,the thesis has several exploratory studies:
First,based on neoclassical and endogenous growth models,the thesis not only analyzes theoretically the impact of capital accumulation on the change of a country's comparative advantage and the adjustment of its industrial structure,but also finds no decrease in the value of the marginal product of capital between 1992 and 2006 by cointegration test.thereby points out an important driving force of China's capital accumulation.
Second,using more than 10,000 import and export data up to SITC(Rev.3) four-digit classification in the UN comtrade database,the thesis calculates the comparative advantage indicators of China's manufacturing industries from 1992 to 2006.and analyzes the factor endowment characteristics of the change of comparative advantage,as well as the correlation between export and production structures of China's manufacturing industry in conjunction with the corresponding annual data of manufacturing sub-industries in domestic statistical yearbooks.The thesis concludes that,although dominant comparative advantage industries are still labor-intensive. some relatively capital-intensive industries are becoming comparative advantage ones or their comparative disadvantage is reducing,and that.the continuing increase of the correlation between export and production structures helps China's manufacturing industry upgrade its industrial structure through comparative advantage.
Third,the thesis creates a method for the research of intra-industrial upgrading through the combination of intra-industry and intra-product specialization,and points out that enterprises,driven by the interest of higher value-added,will accumulate capital and technology independently so as to promote the upgrading of industrial structure.The capital accumulation of China's manufacturing industry has improved capital-labor ratios of the majority of industries to varying degrees,and the total change of capital-labor ratios is also reflected within industries,which create conditions for the future restructuring and upgrading of China's manufacturing industry.
The tolerance and openness of comparative advantage theory,being ancient but always fresh,ensure its strong vitality.In the increasingly globalized economy today. the international specialization is increasingly fine from inter-industry to intra-industry,then to intra-product between the different stages of production,which makes comparative advantage theory be widely applied to the research of inter-industry,intra-industry and intra-product specialization,and become an important research area of industrial structure upgrading.
引文
[1]Redding.S.(1999).Dynamic comparative advantage and the welfare effects of trade.Oxford Economic Papers,51(1).15-39.
[2]Vernon.R.(1966).International investment and international trade in the product cycle.The Quarterly Journal of Economics.80(2).190-207.
[1]Feenstra.R,C.(2004).Advanced international trade:theory and evidence(p.18).Oxfordshire:Princeton University Press.
[3]Findlay.R..& Grubert,H.(1959).Factor intensities,technology progress and the terms of trade.Oxford Economics Paper.111-121.
[1]Oniki.H..& Uzawa.H.(1965).Patterrns of trade and investemnt in a dynamic model of international trade.Review of Economic Studies,32.15-38.
[2]Findlay.R.(1970).Factor proportions and comparative advantage in the long run.Journal of Political Economy.78.27-34.
[1]Chen.Z.(1992).Long-run equilibria in a dynamic Heckscher-Ohlin model.Canadian Journal of Economics,23.923-943.
[2]Findlay.R.(1984).Growth and development in trade models.In Ronald W.Jones & Peter B.Kenen(Eds.Handbook of International Economics.vol.1(pp.325-365).Amsterdam.New York:North Holland.
[3]Bond.E.W..Trask.K.,& Wang.P.(2003).Factor accumulation and trade:Dynamic comparative advantage with endogeneous physical and human capital.Internationl Economic Review,44(3).1041-1060.
[1]Krugman.P.(1987).The narrow moving band.the Dutch disease,and the competitive consequences of Mrs.Thatcher:Notes on trade in the presence of dynamic scale economies.Journal of Development Economics,27.41-55
[2]杨小凯.黄有光.专业化与经济组织——一种新兴古典微观经济学框架[M].北京:经济科学出版社.1999:169-194.
[1]林毅夫.蔡昉.李周.比较优势与发展战略——对“东亚奇迹”的再解释[J].中国社会科学.1999(5):4-20.
[2]郭克莎.对中国外贸战略与贸易政策的评论[J].国际经济评论.2003(9-10):31-34.
[3]左大培.跨国公司及其对东道国的经济影响的再分析[J].国际经济评论.2003(9-10):35-39.
[1]李荣林.动态国际贸易理论研究[M].北京:中国经济出版社.2000.
[2]张幼文.从廉价劳动力优势到稀缺要素优势——论“新开放观”的理论基础[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版).2005(6):1-8
张幼文.经济全球化与国家经济实力——以“新开放观”看开放效益的评估方法[J].国际经济评论2005(9-10):5-9.
[1]华民.我们究竟应当怎样来看待中国对外开放的效益?[J].国际经济评论.2006(1-2):41-47.
[2]张幼文.开放经济发展目标的动态演进——答华民教授的商榷意见[J].国际经济评论.2006(1-2):48-54.
[3]余剑.谷克鉴.开放条件下的要素供给优势转化与产业贸易结构变革——基于比较优势战略的中国改革开放实践的考察[J].国际贸易问题.2005(11):5-11.
[1]Appleyard,D.R.,& Field,Jr.A.J.(2001).International economics,4th edition(p.179).New York:McGraw-Hill.
[2]Davis D.R.(1995).Intra-industry trade:A Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo approach.Journal of International Economics,39,201-226.
[1]当然,也有反对意见。Finger(1975)就提出证据证明SITC三位数内的要素投入的变异程度比三位数间的要素投入的变异程度还要大。参见:Greenaway,D.,& Milner,C.(1984).A cross section analysis of intra-industry trade in the U.K.European Economic Review,25,319-344.
[2]克鲁格曼等人认为,产业内贸易不反映比较优势,即使两国总的资本/劳动比率完全相同,它们的厂商仍会生产有差异的产品。同时,消费者对国外产品品种的需求促使两国进行产业内贸易。规模经济使各国不再独自生产所有的产品。因此,规模经济本身可以成为国际贸易的独立动因。参见:保罗·克鲁格曼,茅瑞斯·奥伯斯法尔德.国际经济学(第五版)[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社.2002:131.
[3]Brander,J.A.(1987).Book review Of Greenaway and Milner(1986).Journal of International Economics.23(1/2),182-185.
[4]卢锋(2004)也认为,新贸易理论分析的行业内分工贸易,有的理论模型在技术上简练精彩,但是从经验事实观察角度看,能够被这类概念解释的分工贸易对象比较少见。参见:卢锋.产品内分工[J].经济学(季刊).2004,4(1).
[5]水平型产业内贸易影响比较大的理论模型包括Krugman(1979)、Lancaster(1980)、Brander和Krugman (1983)等。这些研究的结果认为规模经济、产品多样性、消费者偏好等构成了产业内贸易的基础。由于本文主要分析比较优势在产业内贸易中的作用,所以省略了对水平型产业内贸易的综述。
[1]Falvey,R.E.(1981).Commercial policy and intra-industry trade.Journal of International Economics,11.495-511.
[2]Falvey,R.E.,& Kierzkowski,H.(1987).Product quality,intra-industry trade and imperfect competition.In H.Kierzkowski(Ed),Protection and competition in international trade:Essays in honor of W.M.Corden.Oxford:Basil Blackwell.
[1]Shaked,A.,& Sutton,J.(1984).Natural oligopolies and international trade.In H.Kierzkowski(Ed.).Monopolistic competition and international trade(pp.34-50),Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[1]Davis,D.R.(1995).Intra-industry trade:A Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo approach.Journal of International Economics,39,201-226.
[2]Greenaway,D.,& Milner,C.(1984).A cross section analysis of intra-industry trade in the U.K.European Economic Review,25,319-344.
[3]Greenaway,D.,Hine,R.,& Milner.C.(1995).Vertical and horizontal intra-industry trade:A cross industry analysis for the United Kingdom.Economic Journal.105.1505-1518.
[1]Greenaway.D..& Torstensson.J.(1997).Economic geogaphy,comparative advantage and trade within industries:Evidence from the OECD.FIEF Working Paper No.144.
[2]Celi.G.(1999).Vertical and horizontal intra-industry trade:what is the empirical evidence for the UK?CELPE Discussion Papers 49.
[3]Gullstrand.J.(2000).Country-specific determinants of vertical intra-industry trade with application to trade between Poland and EU.In B.Wawrzynjak(Ed.).Globalisation and Change-Ways to Future.Warsaw:Leon Kozminski Academy of Entrepreneurship and Management.
[1]Kyoji Fukao,Hikari Ishido,& Keiko Ito.(2003).Vertical intra-industry trade and foreign direct investment in East Asia.RIETI Discussion Paper Series,03-E-001.
[2]周弋,任若恩.中国产业内贸易现状及制造业的竞争力[J].经济与管理研究.1999(6):32-35.
[3]徐娅玮.中国产业内贸易的现状与成因分析[J].国际贸易问题.2001(12):29-30.
[4]马剑飞,朱红磊,许罗丹.对中国产业内贸易决定因素的经验研究[J].世界经济.2002(9):22-26.
[5]耿强,吴春燕.FDI与垂直型产业内贸易——基于东亚地区电子产业面板数据的实证分析[R/OL].2004年中国经济学年会论文.
[1]Batassa,B.(1965).Tariff protection in industrial countries:An evaluation.Journal of Political Economy,73(4).573-594.
[2]Corden.W.M.(1966).The structure of a tariff system and the effective protective rate.Journal of Political Economy,74(21.221-237.
[3]Jones.R.W.(1971).Effective protection and substitution.Journal of International Economics,1(1).59-81.
[4]Vanek.J.(1963).Variable factor proportions and inter-industry flows in the theory of international trade Quarterly Journal of Economics.77(1).129-142.
[5]Melvin.J.R.(1969).Intermediate goods,the production possibility curve and gains from trade.Quarterly Journal of Economics,83(1).141-151.
[6]Warne.R.D.(1971).Intermediate goods in international trade with variable proportions and two primary inputs.Quarterly Journal of Economics.85(2).225-236.
[7]Grossman,G.M.(1981).The theory of domestic content protection and content preferences.Quarterly Journal of Economics,96(4).583-603.
[8]Sanyal.K..& Jones.R.W.(1982).The theory,of trade in middle products.American Economic Review.72(1).16-31.
[9]Dixit.A.K..& Grossman.G.M.(1982).Trade and protection with multistage production.Review of Economic Studies,49.583-594.
[1]这些术语的对应英文及来源如下:价值链切片化(slicing up the value chain,Krugman,1995)、生产过程分离化(fragmentation of production,Jones和Kierzkowski,1990;Deardorff,1998;Arndt和Kjerzkowski,2001)、地点分散化(delocalization,Leamer,1996)、外包(outsourcing,Katz和Murphy,1992;Feenstra 和Hanson,1996,1997a)、产品内分工(intra-product specialization,Arndt,1997)、中间品贸易(intra-mediate trade,Antweiler和Trefler,2000)、生产非一体化(disintegration of production,Feenstra,1998)、生产分享(production sharing,Drucker,1977;Feenstra和Hanson,2001)、垂直专业化(vertical specialization,Balassa,1967;Findlay,1978;Hummels,Ishii和Yi,2001)。
[2]Deardorff,A.V.(1998).Fragmentation in simple trade models.Discussion Paper.No.422,Research Seminar in International Economics,University of Michigan.
[1]Arndt,S.W.(1997).Globalization and the open economy.North American Journal of Economics and Finance,8,71-79.
[2]Feenstra,R.C.,& Hanson,G.H.(2001).Global production sharing and rising inequality:A survey of trade and wages.NBER Working Paper No.8372.
[3]这是指跨国企业在产品内分工过程中的企业边界决策问题,即跨国企业是选择外包,还是选择FDI,这方面的研究代表了当代国际贸易理论研究的前沿领域。根据OECD(2004,2006)的解释,外包(outsourcing)分为全球外包(international outsourcing)和国内外包(domestic outsourcing),指将企业原有的业务活动通过契约转由海外或国内独立的第三方来完成,与之对应的概念是insourcing。参见:OECD.(2004).OECD Information Technology Outlook 2004;OECD.(2006).The share of employment potentially affected by offshoring-an empirical investigation.DSTI/ICCP/IE(2005)8/FINAL.
[4]Antras,P.(2005).Incomplete contracts and the product cycle.The American Economic Review,95(4).1054-1073(20).
[1]Helpman,E.(2006).Trade,FDI and the organization of firms.NBER Working Paper No.12091.
[2]Nunn,N.(2005).Relationship-specificity,incomplete contracts and the pattern of trade.International Trade 0512018,EconWPA.
[3]Levchenko,A.A.(2004).Institutional quality and international trade.IMF Working Papers 04/231.
[1]田文,刘厚俊.产品内分工下西方贸易理论的新发展[J].经济学动态.2006(5):69-75.
[2]卢锋.产品内分工[J].经济学(季刊).2004,4(1).
[3]刘志彪.中国沿海地区制造业发展:国际代工模式与创新[J].南开经济研究.2005(5):37-44、58.
[4]北京大学中国经济研究中心课题组.中国出口贸易中的垂直专门化与中美贸易[J].世界经济.2006(5):3-11.
[5]张小蒂,孙景蔚.基于垂直专业化分工的中国产业竞争力分析[J].世界经济.2006(5):12-21.
[1]Findlay,R.(1973).International trade and development theory(p.105).New York:Columbia University Press.
[1]中国商务部国际贸易经济合作研究院.中国对外经济贸易白皮书(2003)[M].北京:中信出版社.2003:68.
[1]中国元旦起再次降低关税,总水平降至10.4%[EB/OL].2003-12-31[2006-12-16].http://news.sina.com.cn/o/2003-12-31/17121475976s.shtml.
[2]财长金人庆就2005年关税调整有关情况答记者问[EB/OL].2004-12-27[2006-12-16].http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2004-12/27/content_2386481.htm.
[3]金人庆就2006年我国关税调整答记者问[EB/OL].2005-12-15[2006-12-16].http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2005-12/15/content_3925978.htm
[4]李慧颖,罗博.2007年中国调整关税:有升有降释放哪些信号?[EB/OL].2006-12-31[2007-1-10]http://finance.people.com.cn/GB/1045/5238698.html.
[5]杜海涛,许志峰.我调整进出口关税税率,“一加一降”优化产业结构[EB/OL].2007-5-24[2007-6-20].http://news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2007-05/24/content_6143543.htm.
[6]财政部新闻办公室.2008年1月1日起我国进出口关税税则将做进一步调整[EB/OL].2007-12-21[2007-12-22].http://www.mof.gov.cn/news/20071221_1500_30066.htm.
[1]Balassa.B.(1965).Trade liberalization and revealed comparative advantage.Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies.33.99-123.
[2]Porter.M.(1990).Competitive Advantage of Nations.The Free Press.中译本.国家竞争优势.北京:华夏出版社.2002.
[1]迈克尔·波特.国家竞争优势.北京:华夏出版社.2002:724.
[1]尹翔硕.中国出口制成品结构与制造业生产结构差异的分析[J].国际贸易问题,1997(4):6-12.
[2]金哲松.中国贸易结构与生产结构偏离的原因分析[J].中央财经大学学报.2003(3):38-41.
[1]在解释东亚增长奇迹方面,与要素驱动假说相对应的是以新增长理论为基础的劳动生产率驱动假说,其代表性成果包括Lucas(1988,1993)、Young(1991)等,但这一假说极少得到经验研究的支撑。参见:Kee.H.L.(2005).Productivity or endowments? Sectoral evidence for Hong Kong's aggregate growth,Asian Economic Journal,19(1).51-81.
[2]Ventura.J.(1997).Growth and interdependence.The Quarterly Journal of Economics.112(1).57-84.
[3]Feenstra.R.C.(2004).Advanced international trade:theory and evidence(p.361).Oxfordshire:Princeton University Press.
[4]Batista.C.,& Potin.J.(2007).International specialization and the marginal product of capital.1976-2000.Oxford Working Paper No.357.
[5]资本/劳动比例,也称人均资本,其单位是万元/人,下同。
[1]曾铮.王鹏.产品内分工理论与价值链理论的渗透与耦合[J].财贸经济.2007(3):121-125.
[1]钱纳里.赛尔昆.发展的型式:1950-1970[M].北京:经济科学出版社.1988.
[1]WTO.(2007).International trade statistics 2007(p.43).http://www.wto.org/english/res_eistatis_e/its2007_e/its07_toc_e.htm
[2]邱晓华.外贸对中国经济影响的实证分析[M].北京:中国统计出版社.2005:24-43.
[1]林毅夫.蔡昉.李周.比较优势与发展战略——对“东亚奇迹”的再解释[J].中国社会科学.1999(5):4-20.
[2]UNIDO.(2004).Industrial Development Report 2004(p-184).http://www.unido.org/doc/43849.
[3]UNIDO.(2005).Industrial Development Report 2005(p.135).http://www.unido.org/doc/5156
[1]Feenstra.R.C.(2004).Advanced international trade.theory and evidence(p.339).Oxfordshire:Princeton University Press.
[2]邱晓华.外贸对中国经济影响的实证分析[M].北京:中国统计出版社.2005:24-43.
[3]黄蔚.方齐云.对外开放与我国经济增长的实证分析[J].国际贸易问题.2006(6):5-9.
[4]Zhang.Y.(2005).Productivity performance in developing countries,country case studies:People's Republic of China(p.5).http://www.unido.org/doc/4899.
[1]迈克尔·波特.国家竞争优势.北京:华夏出版社.2002:72.
[1]潘悦.在全球化产业链条中加速升级换代——我国加工贸易的产业升级状况分析[J].中国工业经济2002(6):27-36.
[1]Helpman.E.(2006).Trade.FDI and organization of firms.NBER Working Paper No.12091.
[1]埃尔赫南·赫尔普曼,保罗·克鲁格曼.市场结构和对外贸易[M].上海:三联书店上海分店.1993.
[2]保罗·克鲁格曼.茅瑞斯·奥伯斯法尔德.国际经济学(第五版)[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社.2002.
[3]北京大学中国经济研究中心课题组.中国出口贸易中的垂直专门化与中美贸易[J].世界经济.2006(5):3-11.
[4]伯尔蒂尔·奥林.地区间贸易和国际贸易[M].北京:商务印书馆.1986.
[5]大卫·格林纳韦.国际贸易前沿问题[M].北京:中国税务出版社.2000.
[6]蔡昉.王德文.王美艳.工业竞争力与比较优势——WTO框架下提高我国工业竞争力的方向[J].管理世界.2003(2):58-63、70.
[7]戴伯勋.沈宏达.现代产业经济学[M].北京:经济管理出版社.2001.
[8]耿强,吴春燕.FDI与垂直型产业内贸易——基于东亚地区电子产业面板数据的实证分析[R/OL].2004年中国经济学年会论文.
[9]付伯新.关贸总协定对日本产业结构的影响[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社.1999.
[10]郭克莎.对中国外贸战略与贸易政策的评论[J].国际经济评论.2003(9-10):31-34.
[11]郭克莎,王延中.中国产业结构变动趋势及政策研究[M].北京:经济管理出版社.1999.
[12]国家计委宏观经济研究院课题组.中国工业结构调整与升级:理论、实证和政策[M].北京:中国计划出版社.2001.
[13]国家统计局国民经济核算司.中国2002年投入产出表[M].北京:中国统计出版社.2006.
[14]华民.我们究竟应当怎样来看待中国对外开放的效益?[J].国际经济评论.2006 4(1-2):41-47.
[15]胡昭玲.产品内国际分工对中国工业生产率的影响分析[J].中国工业经济.2007(6):30-37.
[16]黄蔚,方齐云.对外开放与我国经济增长的实证分析[J].国际贸易问题.2006(6):5-9.
[17]江小涓.世纪之交的工业结构升级[M].上海:上海远东出版社.1996.
[18]江小涓.我国出口商品结构的决定因素和变化趋势[J].经济研究.2007(5):4-16.
[19]蒋选.面向新世纪的我国产业结构政策[M].北京:中国计划出版社.2003.
[20]蒋昭侠.产业结构问题研究[M].北京:中国经济出版社.2005.
[21]金碚,李钢.陈志.加入WTO以来中国制造业国际竞争力的实证分析[J].中国工业经济.2006(10):5-14.
[22]金哲松.国际贸易结构与流向[M].北京:中国计划出版社.2000.
[23]金哲松.中国贸易结构与生产结构偏离的原因分析[J].中央财经大学学报.2003(3):38-41.
[24]库兹涅茨.各国的经济增长[M].北京:商务印书馆.1985
[25]李春林.工业经济的比较优势分析[M].北京:冶金工业出版社.2003.
[26]李嘉图.政治经济学及赋税原理[M].北京:商务印书馆.1962.
[27]李辉文.现代比较优势理论的动态性质——蒹评“比较优势陷阱”[J].经济评论.2004(1):42-47.
[28]李辉文.石燕.产业内贸易与比较优势——对产业内贸易根源的重新审视[J].经济评论.2006(3):102-111.
[29]李荣林.动态国际贸易理论研究[M].北京:中国经济出版社.2000.
[30]李斯特.政治经济学的国民体系[M].北京:商务印书馆.1961.
[31]李小平.朱钟棣.国际贸易、R&D溢出和生产率增长[J]_经济研究.2006(2):31-43.
[32]梁琦.中国制造业分工、地方专业化及其国际比较[J].世界经济.2004(12):32-40.
[33]林毅夫.蔡昉,李周.比较优势与发展战略——对“东亚奇迹”的再解释[J].中国社会科学.1999(5):4-20.
[34]刘志彪.中国沿海地区制造业发展:国际代工模式与创新[J].南开经济研究.2005(5):37-44、58.
[35]卢锋.产品内分工[J].经济学(季刊).2004.4(1).
[36]卢锋.当代服务外包的经济学观察:产品内分工的分析视角[J].世界经济.2007(8):22-35.
[37]马剑飞.朱红磊.许罗丹.对中国产业内贸易决定因素的经验研究[J].世界经济.2002(9):22-26.
[38]迈克尔·波特.国家竞争优势.北京:华夏出版社.2002.
[39]潘悦.在全球化产业链条中加速升级换代——我国加工贸易的产业升级状况分析[J].中国工业经济.2002(6):27-36.
[40]钱纳里等.工业化和经济增长的比较研究[M].上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社.1989.
[41]钱纳里.赛尔昆发展的型式:1950-1970[M].北京:经济科学出版社.1988.
[42]邱晓华.外贸对中国经济影响的实证分析[M].北京:中国统计出版社.2005.
[43]任若恩.关于中国制造业国际竞争力的初步研究[J].中国软科学.1996(9):74-82,
[44]任若恩.关于中国制造业国际竞争力的进一步研究[J].经济研究.1998(2):3-13.
[45]宋泓明.中国产业结构高级化分析[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社.2004.
[46]唐晓华等.产业组织与信息[M].北京:经济管理出版社,2005.
[47]田文.产品内贸易论[M].北京:经济科学出版社.2006.
[48]田文.刘厚俊.产品内分工下西方贸易理论的新发展[J].经济学动态.2006(5):69-75.
[49]王岳平.中国工业结构调整与升级:理论、实证和政策[M].北京:中国计划出版社.2001.
[50]吴延兵.R&D与生产率——基于中国制造业的实证研究[J].经济研究.2006(11):60-70.
[51]许辉.国际分工与我国产业结构升级研究[J].当代财经.1999(8):54-56.
[52]徐娅玮.中国产业内贸易的现状与成因分析[J].国际贸易问题.2001(12):29-30.
[53]亚当·斯密.国民财富的性质和原因的研究[M].北京:商务印书馆.1974.
[54]杨小凯.黄有光.专业化与经济组织——一种新兴古典微观经济学框架[M].北京:经济科学出版社.1999:169-194.
[55]尹翔硕.中国出口制成品结构与制造业生产结构差异的分析[J].国际贸易问题.1997(4):6-12.
[56]余剑,谷克鉴.开放条件下的要素供给优势转化与产业贸易结构变革——基于比较优 势战略的中国改革开放实践的考察[J].国际贸易问题.2005(11):5-11.
[57]臧旭恒.徐向艺.杨蕙馨.产业经济学(第三版)[M].北京:经济科学出版社.2005.
[58]曾国宁.区域产业竞争力的来源[J].经济学动态.2006(6):69-72.
[59]曾铮.王鹏.产品内分工理论与价值链理论的渗透与耦合[J].财贸经济.2007(3):121-125.
[60]张伯伟.制造业出口竞争优势与资本密集度之间关系的实证分析[J].世界经济.2000(7):38-43.
[61]张二震.日本渐进式贸易自由化对我国的启示[J].国际贸易.1994(8):27-28.
[62]张二震.全球化与中国发展道路的理论思考[J].南京大学学报(哲学·人文科学·社会科学).2007(1):43-49.
[63]张鸿.我国对外贸易结构及其比较优势的实证分析[J].国际贸易问题.2006(4):46-52.
[64]张小蒂,孙景蔚.基于垂直专业化分工的中国产业竞争力分析[J].世界经济.2006(5):12-21.
[65]张幼文.从廉价劳动力优势到稀缺要素优势——论“新开放观”的理论基础[J].南开学报(哲学社会科学版).2005(6):1-8.
[66]张幼文.经济全球化与国家经济实力——以“新开放观”看开放效益的评估方法[J].国际经济评论.2005(9-10):5-9.
[67]张幼文.开放经济发展目标的动态演进——答华民教授的商榷意见[J].国际经济评论.2006(1-2):48-54.
[68]郑海涛.任若恩.多边比较下的中国制造业国际竞争力研究:1980-2004[J].经济研究.2005(12):77-89.
[69]郑海涛.任若恩.中国制造业国际竞争力的比较研究——甚于中国和德国的比较[J].中国软科学.2004(10):59-64.
[70]周达.我国商品进出口结构与制造业结构变动特性的关联分析[J].经济经纬.2007(5):48-51.
[71]周弋,任若恩.中国产业内贸易现状及制造业的竞争力[J].经济与管理研究.1999(6):32-35.
[72]中国商务部国际贸易经济合作研究院.中国对外经济贸易白皮书(2003)[M].北京:中信出版社.2003.
[73]朱建国.苏涛,王骏翼.产业国际竞争力内涵初探[J].世界经济文汇.2001(1):62-65.
[74]祝合良.开放条件下的中国工业化[M].北京:经济管理出版社.2002.
[75]左大培.跨国公司及其对东道国的经济影响的再分析[J].国际经济评论.2003(9-10):35-39.
[76]Antras,P.(2003).Firms,contracts,and trade structure.Quarterly Journal of Economics.118(4),1375-1418(44).
[77]Antras.P.(2005).Incomplete contracts and the product cycle.The American Economic Review;95(4).1054-1073(20).
[78]Antweiler.W.,& Trefler,D.(2000).Increasing returns and all that:A view from trade.NBER Working Paper No.7941.
[79]Appleyard,D.R.,& Field,Jr.A.J.(2001).International economics,4th edition.New York:McGraw-Hill.
[80]Arndt,S.W.(1997).Globalization and the open economy.North American Journal of Economics and Finance,8.71-79.
[81]Arndt.S.W.,& Kierzkowski,H.(2001).Fragmentation:New production patterns in the World Economy.London:Oxford University,Press.
[82]Balassa,B.(1965).Trade liberalization and revealed comparative advantage.Manchester School of Economic and Social Studies,33,99-123.
[83]Balassa.B.(I965).Tariff protection in industrial countries:An evaluation.Journal of Political Economy,73(4),573-594.
[84]Balassa,B.(1966).Tariff reductions and trade in manufactures among the industrial countries.American Economic Review:56,466-473.
[85]Balassa,B.(1967).Trade liberalization among industrial countries.New York:McGraw-Hill.
[86]Batista,C.,& Potin.J.(2007).International specialization and the marginal product of capital.1976-2000.Oxford Working Paper No.357.
[87]Bond,E.W.,Trask,K..& Wang,P.(2003).Factor accumulation and trade:Dynamic comparative advantage with endogeneous physical and human capital,Internationl Economic Review,44(3),1041-1060.
[88]Bowen.H.P.,Learner,E.E..& Sveikauskas,L.(1987).Multicountry,multifactor tests of the factor abundance theory.American Economic Review,77(5),791-809.
[89]Brander,A.,& Krugman,P.(1983).A reciprocal dumping model of international trade.Journal of International Economics,13,313-321.
[90]Brander,J.A.(1987).Book review of Greenaway and Milner(1986).Journal of International Economics.23(1/2).182-185.
[91]Campa,J.,& Goldberg,L.S.(1997).The evolving external orientation of manufacturing industries:Evidence from four countries.NBER Working Paper No.5919.
[92]Celi.G.(1999).Vertical and horizontal intra-industry,trade:what is the empirical evidence for the UK? CELPE Discussion Papers 49.
[93]Chert,Z.(1992).Long-run equilibria in a dynamic Heckscher-Ohlin model.Canadian Journal of Economics,23,923-943.
[94]Collins,S.,& Bosworth,B.(1996).Economic growth in East Asia:Accumulation versus Assimilation.Brookings Papers on Economic Activity,2.135-191.
[95]Corden,W.M.(1966).The structure of a tariff system and the effective protective rate.Journal of Political Economy,74(2).221-237.
[96]Davis.D.R.(1995).Intra-industry trade:A Heckscher-Ohlin-Ricardo approach.Journal of International Economics,39.201-226.
[97]Deardorff.A.V.(1974).A geometry of growth and trade.Canadian Journal of Economics.7(2),295-306.
[98]Deardorff,A.V.(1998).Fragmentation in simple trade models.Discussion Paper.No.422.Research Seminar in International Economics,University of Michigan.
[99]Deardorff,A.V.(2000).Patterns of trade and growth across cones.De Economist,148.141-166.
[100]Debaere.P.M.,& Demiroglu,U.(2006).Factor accumulation without diminishing returns:The case of East Asia.Review of International Economics.14(1).16-29.
[101]Dixit,A.K..& Grossman.G.M.(1982).Trade and protection with multistage production.Review of Economic Studies,49.583-594.
[102]Dixit.A.K.,& Stiglitz.J.(1977).Monopolistic competition and optimum product diversity.American Economic Review,77.297-308.
[103]Drucker,P.(1977,March 15).The rise of production sharing.The Wall Street Journal.
[104]Falvey,R.E.(1981).Commercial policy and intra-industry trade,Journal of International Economics,11,495-511.
[105]Falvey.R.E.,& Kierzkowski,H.(1987).Product quality,intra-industry trade and imperfect competition.In H.Kierzkowski(Ed),Protection and competition in international trade:Essays in honor of W.M.Corden.Oxford:Basil Blackwell.
[106]Feenstra,R.C.(1998).Integration of trade and disintegration of production in the global economy.The Journal of Economic Perspectives,12(Fall).31-50.
[107]Feenstra,R.C.(2004).Advanced international trade:theory and evidence.Oxfordshire:Princeton University Press.
[108]Feenstra.R.C.,& Hanson,G.H.(1996).Foreign investment,outsourcing and relative wages.In R.C.Feenstra,G.M.Grossman & D.A.Irwin(Eds.),The political economy of trade policy:Papers in honor of Jagdish Bhagwati(pp.89-127).Cambridge:MIT Press.
[109]Feenstra,R.C.,& Hanson.G.H.(1997a).Foreign direct investment and relative wages:Evidence from Mexico's Maquiladoras.Journal of International Economics.42(May).371-394.
[110]Feenstra,R.C.,& Hanson,G.H.(1997b).Productivity measurement and the impact of trade and technology on wages:Estimates for the U.S.,1972-1990.NBER Working Paper No.6052.
[111]Feenstra,R.C..& Hanson.G.H.(2001).Global production sharing and rising inequality:A survey of trade and wages.NBER Working Paper No.8372.
[112]Feenstra,R.C..& Hanson.G.H.(2005).Ownership and control in outsourcing to China:Estimating the property-rights theory of the firm.The Quarterly Journal of Economics.120(2),729-761.
[113]Findlay.R.(1970).Factor proportions and comparative advantage in the long run.Journal of Political Economy:78,27-34.
[114]Findlay,R.(1973).International trade and development theory,New York:Columbia University Press.
[115]Findlay,R.(1978).An Austrian model of international trade and interest rate equalizations.Journal of Political Economy,86.989-1008.
[116]Findlay,R.(1984).Growth and development in trade models,In Ronald W.Jones & Peter B.Kenen(Eds.),Handbook of International Economics.vol.1(pp.325-365).Amsterdam.New York:North Holland.
[117]Findlay,R.(1996).Modeling global interdependence:Centers,peripheries,and frontiers.The American Economic Review,86(2),47-51.
[118]Findlay,R.,& Grubert.H.(1959).Factor intensities,technology progress and the terms of trade.Oxford Economics Paper,111-121.
[119]Greenaway,D.,Hine,R.,& Milner,C.(1994).Country-specific factors and the pattern of horizontal and vertical intra-industry trade in the UK.Weltwirtschaftliches Archly.130.77-100.
[120]Greenaway,D.,Hine,R.,& Milner.C.(1995).Vertical and horizontal intra-industry trade:A cross industry analysis for the United Kingdom.Economic Journal.105,1505-15:18.
[121]Greenaway,D..& Milner,C.(1984).A cross section analysis of intra-industry trade in the U.K.European Economic Review,25,319-344.
[122]Greenaway,D.,& Torstensson.J.(1997).Economic geography,comparative advantage and trade within industries:Evidence from the OECD.FIEF Working Paper No.144.
[123]Grossman,G.M.(1981).The theory of domestic content protection and content preferences.Quarterly Journal of Economics.96(4),583-603.
[124]Grossman,G.M.,& Helpman.E.(1991).Quality ladders and product cycles.Quarterly Journal of Economics,106,557-586.
[125]Grubel,H.G.,& Lloyd.P.J.(1975).Intra-industry,trade:The theory and measurement of international trade in differentiated products,London:The Macmillan Press Ltd.
[126]Gullstrand,J.(2000).Country-specific determinants of vertical intra-industry trade with application to trade between Poland and EU.In B.Wawrzynjak(Ed.),Globalisation and Change-Ways to Future.Warsaw:Leon Kozminski Academy of Entrepreneurship and Management.
[127]Helpman,E.(1981).International trade in the presence of product differentiation,economies of scale and monopolistic competition.Journal of International Economics,11.305-340.
[128]Helpman,E.(2006).Trade,FDI and organization of firms.NBER Working Paper No.12091.
[129]Hummels,D.,Ishii,J..& Yi,Kei-Mu.(2001).The nature and growth of vertical specialization in world trade.Journal of International Economics.54(1),75-96.
[130]Hummels,D.,Rapoport.D.,& Yi.Kei-Mu.(1998).Vertical specialization and the changing nature of world trade.Economic Policy Review,June,79-99
[131]Jones,R.W..& Kierzkowski,H.(1990).The role of services in production and international trade:A theoretical framework.In Ronald W.Jones & Anne O.Krueger(Eds),The political economy of international trade:Essays in honor of Robert E.Baldwin(pp.31-48).Cambridge:Blackwell.
[132]Jones,R.W.(1971).Effective protection and substitution.Journal of International Economics,1(1),59-81.
[133]Katz.L.F..& Murphy,K.M.(1992).Changes in relative wages.1963-1987:Supply and demand factors.Quarterly Journal of Economics.107.35-78.
[134]Kee,H.L.(2005).Productivity or endowments? Sectoral evidence for Hong Kong's aggregate growth.Asian Economic Journal,19(1),51-81.
[135]Kim,J.,& Lau,L.(1994).The sources of economic gowth of the East Asian newly industrialized countries.Journal of the Japanese and International Economies,8(6).235-271.
[136]Kohli,U.(1997).Accounting for recent economic growth in Southeast Asia.Review of Development Economics.1(3).245-256.
[137]Krugman.P.R.(1979).A model of innovation,technology transfer,and the world distribution of income.Journal of Political Economy.87.253-266.
[138]Krugman.P.R.(1979).Increasing returns,monopolistic competition and international trade.Journal of International Economics,9,469-479.
[139]Krugman,P.R.(1987).The narrow moving band.the Dutch disease,and the competitive consequences of Mrs.Thatcher:Notes on trade in the presence of dynamic scale economies.Journal of Development Economics.27,41-55.
[140]Krugman,P.R.(1994).The myth of Asia's miracle.Foreign Affairs,73(6),62-78.
[141]Krugman,P.R.(1995).Growing world trade:Causes and consequences.Brookings Papers on Economic Activity,1,327-377.
[142]Kyoji Fukao.Hikari Ishido,& Keiko Ito.(2003).Vertical intra-industry,trade and foreign direct investment in East Asia.RIETI Discussion Paper Series.03-E-001.
[143]Lancaster,K.(1980).Intra-industry trade under perfect monopolistic competition.Journal of International Economics,10.151-175.
[144]Leamer,E.E.(1980).The Leontief paradox,reconsidered.Journal of Political Economy.88(3),495-503.
[145]Learner.E.E.(1996).In search of Stolper-Samuelson effects on U.S.wages.NBER Working Paper No.5427.
[146]Levchenko,A.A.(2004).Institutional quality,and international trade.IMF Working Papers 04/231.
[147]Lucas,R.E.Jr.(1988).On the mechanics of economic development.Journal of Monetary Economics,22,3-42.
[148]Lucas,R.E.Jr.(1993).Making a miracle.Econometrica,61(2),251-272.
[149]Mankiw,N.G.(1995).The growth of nations.Brookings Papers on Economic Activity.25.275-310.
[150]Melvin.J.R.(1969).Intermediate goods,the production possibility curve and gains from trade.Quarterly Journal of Economics.83(1),141-151.
[151]Nunn,N.(2005).Relationship-specificity,incomplete contracts and the pattern of trade.International Trade 0512018,EconWPA.
[152]OECD.(2004).OECD Information Technology Outlook 2004.
[153]OECD.(2006).The share of employment potentially affected by offshoring-an empirical investigation.DSTI/ICCP/IE(2005)8/FINAL
[154]Oniki,H..& Uzawa,H.(1965).Patterrns of trade and investemnt in a dynamic model of international trade.Review of Economic Studies.32.15-38.
[155]Redding,S.(1999).Dynamic comparative advantage and the welfare effects of trade.Oxford Economic Papers,51(1),15-39.
[156]Sanyal.K..& Jones,R.W.(1982).The theory of trade in middle products.American Economic Review,72(1),16-31.
[157]Shaked.A..& Sutton,J.(1984).Natural oligopolies and international trade.In H. Kierzkowski(Ed.),Monopolistic competition and international trade(pp.34-50),Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[158]Smith.A.(1984).Capital theory and trade.In Ronald W.Jones & Peter B.Kenen(Eds.).Handbook of International Economics,vol.1(pp.289-324).Amsterdam.New York:North Holland.
[159]Spencer,B.J.(2005).International outsourcing and incomplete contracts.NBER Working Paper No.11418.
[160]Trefler.D.(1993).International factor price differences:Leontief was right! Journal of Political Economy,December,961-987.
[161]Trefler.D.(1995).The case of missing trade and other mysteries.American Economic Review,December,85(5),1029-1046.
[162]UNIDO.(2004).Industrial Development Report 2004.http://www.unido.org/doc/43849.
[163]UNIDO.(2005).Industrial Development Report 2005.http://www.unido.org/doc/5156.
[164]Vanek,J.(1963).Variable factor proportions and inter-industry flows in the theory of international trade.Quarterly Journal of Economics,77(1).129-142.
[165]Vanek.J.(1968).The factor proportions theory:The n-factor case.Kyklos,21.October.749-754.
[166]Ventura.J.(1997).Growth and interdependence.The Quarterly Journal of Economies,112(1),57-84.
[167]Verdoon.P.J.(1960).The intra-block trade of Benelux.In E.A.G.Robinson(ed.).Economic Consequences of the Size of Nations(pp.291-329).London:Macmillan.
[168]Vernon.R.(1966).International investment and international trade in the product cycle.The Quarterly Journal of Economics,80(2).190-207.
[169]Wang.Z.,Zhai,F.,& Xu.D.(2002).Global trade,assistance,and production.The GIAP 5Database.ch.11.part C.
[170]Warne.R.D.(1971).Intermediate goods in international trade with variable proportions and two primary inputs.Quarterly Journal of Economics,85(2).225-236.
[171]WTO.(2007).International trade statistics 2007.http://www.wto.org/english/res_e/statis_e/its2007_e/its07_toc_e.htm
[172]Young.A.(1991).Learning by doing and the dynamic effects of international trade.The Quarterly Journal of Economics,106.369-406.
[173]Young.A.(1992).A tale of two cities:Factor accumulation and technical change in Hong Kong and Singapore.NBER Macroeconomics Annual 1992,13-53.
[174]Young.A.(1995).The tyranny numbers:Confronting the statistical realities of the East Asian growth experience.The Quarterly Journal of Economics,110(3).641-668.
[175]Zhang,Y.(2005).Productivity performance in developing countries,country case studies:People's Republic of China(p.5).http://www.unido.org/doc/4899.
