摘要
基督教右翼是美国近三四十年上升很快的一股保守力量,它是美国新教中一系列右翼基督教政治和社会运动及其组织,其特征是对保守的社会和政治价值的强烈支持。基督教右翼由成百上千万诚笃的美国民众、各种右翼机构、组织和媒体、形形色色的基督教右翼领导人和政治家以及其它右翼意识形态基础设施构成,其中最活跃的包括基要派、福音教派、五旬节派、南部浸礼会等。
本文认为,基督教右翼作为当代美国国内的一个重要社会思潮正对美国对外政策产生持续的重大影响。基督教右翼影响美国外交政策的机制有四：其一,基督教右翼参政意识很强,为达到参政的目的,他们在右翼意识形态基础设施建设上不遗余力,建立了组织良好、运作有序的草根组织和网络,对执政当局进行了强大的游说活动。其二,自从20世纪80年代里根执政以来,右翼保守主义即成为共和党的意识形态。由于在价值理念上有着更多的共性,基督教右翼不断地融入共和党,与共和党趋于一体化。基督教右翼与共和党各取所需、彼此合作,其结果是宗教保守主义日益共和党化,共和党逐渐宗教保守化。尤其是20世纪90年代中期,基督教右翼有计划地渗透并接管共和党在每个州的党部组织,使得这个合流的趋势更加明显。基督教右翼近年来成为共和党“保守主义革命”的中坚力量,积极参政,在不少人眼中甚至危及到美国开国以来的政教分离传统。其三,作为美国外交政策代表,布什总统是历史上最以“信仰为基础”的美国总统。善恶二元论、末世论、弥塞亚精神和启示录精神对布什总统的外交政策都有直接影响。由于自恃“上帝在我们这一边”,布什政府的单边主义外交风格凸显其宗教色彩。其四,基督教右翼与新保守主义建立了政治同盟。这是通过两个机制实现的。首先,基督教右翼属于一种特殊的“前千年主义”,其信徒相信在耶稣再次降临人世之前以色列将重新建国。新保守主义者中许多是犹太人,他们和南方新教原教旨主义的同盟大大有利于美国无条件支持以色列右翼政府的政策。其次,由于南方新教原教旨主义者积极参加选举投票,他们已经成为控制共和党初选的关键力量。
基督教右翼影响美国外交政策最为明显的领域是美国对以色列的外交政策和美国对达尔富尔问题的政策。由于历史和文化因素、基督教右翼的游说、基督教锡安主义的影响,美国给予以色列长期慷慨的支持。从克林顿时期的袖手旁观到布什时期的积极干预,苏丹达尔富尔问题是美国外交政策变化比较大的领域。布什上台以后,由于福音派的游说,美国开始深度卷入苏丹国内政治。20世纪90年代后期美国基督教保守派建立了针对苏丹问题的草根联盟,这一联盟促使布什政府介入苏丹达尔富尔问题,而美国的介入是2005年和平协议签署的重要因素。
本文详细梳理了基督教右翼崛起的动因,系统分析了基督教右翼影响美国外交决策的机制,全面归纳了美国亲睐以色列的宗教根源,充分论证了基督教右翼在美国外交的两大领域——美国对以色列的外交政策和美国对达尔富尔问题的政策——中所产生的巨大影响。
Christian Right refers to a series of right-wing Christian political and social movements and their organizations in American Protestant, the features of which include the strong support of conservative social and political value. Christian Right is an emerging conservative force in the recent three or four decades and Fundamentalism, Evangelicalism, Pentecost, South Baptism Congregation are politically active. As a new international relation actor, Christian Right is producing long-term and significant impact on American diplomacy.
As an influential social movement, Christian Right is exerting a powerful and enduring influence on American domestic and foreign policies. Four mechanisms are involved as to the influence on American foreign policies by Christian Right. In the first place, Christian Right has a sharp awareness of political participation. They have established well-organized and well-managed networks and grass-root organizations, which enable them to vigorously lobby the administration. Secondly, right wing conservatism has become the ideology of Republican Party since Reagan presidency. Because of the common basis between the two, religious conservatives became the pillar of Republican Party and Republican Party went more conservative. This trend is more obvious since the mid-nineties. Christian Right has become the main thrust of Republican Party and played an active role in American politics. This trend is endangering the tradition of the separation between church and state. Thirdly, Bush is referred to as the most faith-based president. Eschatology combined with Armageddon, Messiah and Apocalypse is producing direct impact upon his administrative style and his unilateral foreign policy. Fourthly, Christian right established a political alliance with neo-conservatives. Two mechanisms make the coalition become possible. Members of Christian Right have strong faith in premillenniumism and to them the establishment of an Israeli state is the sign of the Second Coming of Jesus. Many neo-conservatives are Jews and their association with southern Christian Fundamentalism greatly contributes to American government's unqualified support to Israel. Since the southern Christian Fundamentalists are active in casting their votes, they have become the major force in the Republican preliminary election.
Two areas have witnessed the obvious impact of Christian Right:American Middle East policy and new intervention based on faith. Due to the cultural affinity, the influence of Christian Right and the rise of Christian Zionism, America is in support of Israel without any reservation.
This dissertation makes an in-depth analysis of the relationship between Christian Right and American foreign policies. The reasons of the participation in foreign policy decision by Christian Right and the modes of policy-decision are tackled thoroughly. The theological framework of Bush's faith is formulated at the author's discretion. The proof of two areas where Christian Right has the most obvious impact is initiated with groundbreaking significance.
引文
1.徐以骅：“美国宗教与中美关系”,《世界知识》,2007年第12期,第63页。
2. R.G.哈切森：《白宫中的上帝》,北京,中国社会科学出版社,1992年版,第35页。
3. Walter Russell Mead, "God's Country", Foreign Affairs, vol.85, no.5,2006, p.42.
4. Pew Forum on God's country?Evangelical and U.S. Foreign Policy, Tuesday, September 26,2006, Pew Research Center, Washington,D.C. http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID= 127
5.“热宗教”指在美国成长迅速的福音派、基要派等新教派别；“冷宗教”指
天主教和其它传统主流教派。参见Walter Russell Mead, "God's Country", Foreign Affairs, vol.85, no.5,2006, p.42.
6.刘澎：“宗教与美国大选”,http://www.tecn.cn/data/detail.php?id=13880
7. Walter Russell Mead, "God's Country", Foreign Affairs, vol.85, no.5,2006,p.42.
8. " American Evangelicals and Israel", Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life,15 April 2005, Pew Research Center, Washington,D.C.
9. Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American Religion:Society and Faith Since World War II, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1988, p.374.
10. William Martin, With God on Our Side:The Rise of the Religious Right in America, Broadway Books, Revised edition,2005.p.138.
11. ibid. p.139.
12.这一理论首先由James Davison Hunter在1991年出版的Culture Wars:The Struggle to Define America提出,John Micklethwait和Adrian Woolbridge的The Right Nation: Conservative Power in America也有详细的讨论。
13. Elizabeth H. Prodromou & Andrew Bacevich, "God Is Not Neutral:Religion and U.S. Foreign Policy after 9/11", Orbis, Vol.48, No.1.2004, pp.43-54.
14. Jim Wallis, "Dangerous Religion:George W.Bush's Theology of Empire" Sojourners, September-October 2003, p.20-26.
15. Jason Beggren & Nicol C. Rae, "Jimmy Carter and George W. Bush:Faith, Foreign Policy and an Evangelical Presidential Style", Presidential Studies, Quarterly, Vol.36(4), December 2006, p.620.
16.“公民宗教”最初由卢梭在《社会契约论》第四卷第八章中提出,指任何现代社会必须具备的伦理和精神基础,是社会联系的纽带。参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_religion.
17. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newsweek, no.10,2003, p.22-30.
18.《不要上帝》一书对自由派进行了辛辣的批判和抨击,因此赢得了许多保守派的夸奖,著名保守派网站右翼新闻(www. rightwingnews.com)的甚至从书中搜集了一些语句编成《库特妙语选》在网上进行传播。
19. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newsweek, no.10,2003, p.22-30.
20.刘澎：“宗教右翼与美国政治”,《美国研究》,1997年第4期,第32-54页。
21.董小川：《二十世纪美国宗教与政治》,人民出版社,2002年,第62页。
22.关于福音派的介绍,参见David W. Bebbington, Evangelicals in Modern Britain: A History from the 1730s to the 1980s, London:Unwin,1989; Paul Freston, Evangelicals and Politics in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Cambridge University Press,2004; George M. Marsden, Reforming Fundamentalism:Fuller Seminary and the New Evangelicalism, Grand Rapids:William B. Eerdmans Publishing,1987;Richard V. Pierard, "The Quest For the Historical Evangelicalism:A Bibliographical Excursus", Fides et Historia, 11 (2),1979 pp. 60-72.; Robert M.Price, "Neo-Evangelicals and Scripture:A Forgotten Period of Ferment", Christian Scholars Review,15 (4),1986, pp.315-330.
23. "Religion and the Founding of the American Republic", http://www.loc.gov exhibits/religion.
24.关于基要派的介绍,参见R. Scott Appleby, Gabriel Abraham Almond & Emmanuel Sivan, Strong Religion, Chicago:University of Chicago Press,2003; Karen Armstrong, The Battle for God:A History of Fundamentalism, New York: Ballantine Books,2001; Brenda E. Brasher, The Encyclopedia of Fundamentalism, New York:Routledge,2001; Lionel Caplan, Studies in Religious Fundamentalism, London:The MacMillan Press Ltd,1987; Gershom Gorenberg, The End of Days:Fundamentalism and the Struggle for the Temple Mount, New York:The Free Press,2000; Bruce B. Lawrence, Defenders of God: The Fundamentalist Revolt against the Modern Age, San Francisco:Harper & Row,1989; George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture:The Shaping of Twentieth Century Evangelicalism,1870-1925, Oxford University Press,1980; Malise Ruthven Malise, Fundamentalism:The Search for Meaning, Oxford:Oxford University Press,2005.
25.基督教特性组织(Christian Identity)是分离基督教基要主义的极端组织。俄克拉荷马联邦大楼发生恐怖袭击后,美国才发现一个叫基督教特性的基要主义基督教组织的存在,它有5万名会员,大多数会员是基督教民兵的成员。该组织也信仰前千禧年及阴谋世界观,他们认为盎格鲁—萨克森是失散的犹
1. Walter Russell Mead, "God's Country", Foreign Affairs, vol.85, no.5 2006,p.42.
2. "American Evangelicals and Israel", Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, fact sheet, Pew Research Center, Washington,D.C.,15 April,2005.
3. ibid.
4. D. Michael Lindsay, Faith in the Halls of Power:How Evangelicals Joined the American Elite, Oxford University Press, U.S.A.,2007, pp.1.
5.史泽华：“新基督教右翼的复兴及其对美国外交的影响”, 《国际关系学院学报》,2008年第2期,第25-31页。
6. Jack Beatty, Age of Betrayal:The Triumph of Money in America,1865-1900, New York:Alfred A. Knopf,2007,pp.86.
7. Charles I. Foster, An Errand of Mercy:The Evangelical United Front, 1790-1837, Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1960, Chapter 3.
8.参见Scopes Trial, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopes_Trial
9.庄辉：“从边缘到主流：基督教右翼适应世俗政治的过程”,徐以骅编辑：《宗教与美国社会》第一辑,时事出版社,2004年,第243页。
10. Hall P. Dobkin, "The Civic Engagement Tradition", in Mary J. Bane, Brent Coffin & Richard Higgins (eds.), Taking faith seriously, Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2005,pp.23-59.
11. Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up:A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America, Boston:Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, pp.63.
12. Lloyd J. Averill, Religious Right, Religious Wrong, New York:The Pilgrim Press,1989, pp.165-166
13. "Crusader Schwartz", Time. vol. LXXIX, no.6, February 9,1962,转引自http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,938304,00.html.
14. Daniel L.Turner, Standing Without Apology:The History of Bob Jones University, Greenville:Bob Jones University Press,1997, pp.132.
15.关于蒙特葛梅利公共汽车抵制运动,参见http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_Bus_Boycott.
16. Robert Wuthnow, The Restructuring of American religion:Society and Faith Since World War II, Princeton:Princeton University Press,1988, p.208.
17. Godfrey Hodgson, The World Turned Right Side Up:A History of the Conservative Ascendancy in America, Boston:Houghton Mifflin Company, 1996, pp.176.
18. Roger Finke & Rodney Stark, The Churching of America:Winners and Losers in Our Religious Economy, New Brunswick:Rutgers University Press,1992, pp.73.
19. "Counting Souls", Time Magazine, October 4,1976.
20.但福音派与共和党并不完全等同,而许多左倾的福音派批判福音——共和党联盟。
21.这些运动的领导人提出世俗保守派关心的问题,对这些问题他们用宗教的范式来解释,比如增加国防开支是为了继续宣扬福音,支持台湾是保护基督教联盟免受“无神”的共产主义的“侵略”,保守的社会价值推动了基督教右翼的形成和壮大。
22. Richard Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics in Antebellum America, New Haven, Conn.:Yale University,1993, p.216.
23. Chris Mooney, The Republican War on Science, NewYork:Basic Books,2005. p.202.
24. Lee Sigelman and Stanley Presser, "Measuring Public Support for the New Christian Right:The Peril of Point Estimation", Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol. 52,1988, p.325.
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26.由于其关注于选举活动,该阵线在1998年失去了免税地位,并被处以巨额罚款,影响力有所下降。
27. Michael D'Antonio, Fall from Grace:The Failed Crusade of the Christian Right. New York:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux,1989, pp.128.
28. William Schneider, "Trouble for the GOP", Public Opinion Quarterly,1989, 2:2, p.59-60
29. Moen, Mattew C. School Prayer and the Politics of Life Style Concern. Social Science Quarerly,1994,65:1065-1071.
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31. Michael D' Antonio, Fall from Grace:The Failed Crusade of the Christian Right, New York:Farrar, Straus, and Giroux,1989, p.164.
32. Maureen Farrell, "We Could Control This Country:33 Extreme Reasons to Give Bush the Boot", August 24,2004, http://www.buzzflash.com farrell/04/08/far04029.html.
33.于时语：“福音派基督徒——共和党的最可靠堡垒”,《南风窗》,2006年第22期,第94页。
34. William Martin Chavanne, "With God on Our Side:Reflections on the Religious Right",转引自http://www.religion-online.org /showarticle.asp?title=1658.
35. John C. Green, James L. Guth, and Kevin Hill, "Faith and Election:The Christian Right in Congressional Campaigns,1978-1988", Journal of Politics,Vol.55,1993, pp.80-91.
36. "God's Country? Evangelicals and U.S. Foreign Policy", Pew Research Center,Washington D.C., September 26,2006.
37. Robert D.Putnam, Bowling Alone:The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York:Simon & Schuster,2000, pp.87.
38. Alan Crawford, Thunder on the Right, New York:Pantheon,1980, pp.65.
39. Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life-Style Concern", Social Science Quarterly, Vol 65,1994, pp.1065-1071.
40. Waton Justin, The Christian Coaliton:Dreams of Restoration, Demands for Recognition, New York:St. Martin's Press,1997, pp.77.
41.庄锡：《二十世纪的美国文化》,浙江人民出版社,1996年,第185页。
42. Burt Solomon, "Christian Soldiers", National Journal, February 24,1996, pp.410-415.
43.葛丽英：“基督教新右派运动兴起的主要动因”,《宗教学研究》,2000年第四期。
44. Robert Wuthnow, "The Political Rebirth of American Evangelicals", in Robert C. Liebman and Robert Wuthnow (eds.),The New Christian Right, New York: Aldine,1983, pp.168-187.
45. Michael Lienesch, Redeeming America:Piety and Politics in the New Christian Right, Chapel Hill:University of North Carolina Press,1993, pp.46.
46. Frances Fitzgerald, "A Disciplined, Charging Army", New Yorker,18 May, 1981,pp.53-141.
47.葛丽英：“基督教新右派运动兴起的主要动因”,《宗教学研究》,2000年第四期。
48. Paul J.Weber & W.Landis Jones, U.S. Religious Interest Groups, CA: Greenwood Press, pp.179.
49. Robert D.Putnam, Bowling Alone:The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York:Simon & Schuster,2000, pp.87.
50. John H. Young, Sherry A. Swirsky & Jay B. Myerson, "Going to the Grassroots:How the Christian Coalition is Filling the Void",Campaigns and Elections, Vol 34, July,1995.
51.约翰·斯通：《社会中的宗教：一种宗教社会学》,四川人民出版社,1991年,第177页。
1. Michael Barone, " Faith in Numbers", National Review, Vol.48,1996, pp.56-58.
2.徐以骅：《宗教与美国社会》(第一辑),时事出版社,2003年,第105页。
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6. Howard LaFranchi, " Evangelized Foreign Policy", Christian Science Monitor, March 2,2006.
7. ibid.
8. William Martin, With God on Our Side:The Rise of the Religious Right in America, New York:Broadway Books,1997, pp.163.
9.徐以骅：“宗教与当前美国外交政策”,《和平与发展》,2008年第1期,第62-66页。
10. Jim Lobe, "Population Activists Angered by Bush Freeze on UN Fund", Tuesday, January 15,2002, One World.net,转引自http://www.commondreams. org/headlines02/0115-05.htm.
11.这个在1995年由184个国家签署的议程包括确认妇女的基本权利,呼吁结束在几个重要领域内针对妇女的歧视。在签署确认北京大会议程前,美国代表团要求加入修正案,排除妇女堕胎权。
12. Kate O'Beirne,"Our Girl at the U.N.", National Review,转引自http://www.nationalreview.com/kob/kob032102.asp.
13. "Ellen Sauerbrey", http://www.sourcewatch.org/index.php? title=Ellen_Sauerbrey
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23. Jasper Becker, "Christian Underground Smuggles North Koreans to Safety in South", San Francisco Chronicle, February 15,2003.
24. John Feffer, All Democracy, All the Time, http://www.Salon.com.
25.源出1970年美国人Charles A. Reich所作绿化美国,认为国家是一部巨大的机器,完全不受人控制并置个人价值于不顾。
26. John S. Saloma, Ominous Politics:The New Conservative Labyrinth, New York: Hill and Wang,1984.
27. Walter Dean Burnham, "Drift or Mandate?:The 1996 Elections",July 1,1996, http://www.prospect.org.
28.这些捐款分布如下：其中赞同自由市场的传统基金会得到的资助最多,为890万美元,其次是美国企业研究所,为690万美元,卡图研究所390万美元,赫德逊研究所330万美元,曼哈顿研究所210万美元。韦里奇的自由
31. Stefan Halper and Jonathan Clarke, America Alone:The Neo-Conservatives and the Global Order, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,2004, pp.196.
32. "Statement of Principles", Project for a New American Century, http://www.newamericancentury.org.
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35. Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism:The Autobiography of an Idea, New York: Free Press,1995, p.365.
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37. Chip Berlet & Nikhil Aziz, "Culture, Religion, Apocalypse, and Middle East Foreign Policy", IRC Right Web, http://rightweb.irc-online.org/rw/848.html December 5,2003.
38. A Clean Break:A New Strategy for Securing the Realm, http://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Clean_Break
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40. Schneider, William. "Trouble for the GOP", Public Opinion,1998,12:2,59-60
41. Irving Kristol, Neoconservatism:The Autobiography of an Idea, New York: Free Press,1995,pp.368.
42. Duane Oldfield, "The Evangelical Roots of American Unilateralism:Christian Right's Influence and How to Counter It", http://www.fpif. org/papers/ 2004evangelical.html
43. John Green, "The Spiritual Wiling:The Collective Identity and the Development of the Christian Right", in Jo Freeman and Victoria Johnson, eds., Waves of Protest, Lanham, MD:Roman & Littlefield,1999.
44. Robert Reno, "Religion and Politics Didn't Mix", Omaha World Herald, November 1998.
45. Corwin Smidt, "Identifying Evangelical Respondents:An Analysis of born-Again and Bible Questions Used Across Different Surveys", In Ted G. Jelen, ed., Religion and Political Behavior in the United States, New York: Praeger,1989,pp.23-44.
46. Kevin Eckstrom, "2004, Christians stood at front lines", Washington Post, January 1,2005.
47. Thomas B. Edsall, "Voter Values Determine Political Affiliation", Washington Post, March 26,2001.
48. "2004 Republican National Delegate Survey",The New York Times/CBS News Poll(August 3-23,2004), New York Times, August 29,2004.
49. "Democratic Lead in Party Identification at Highest Pointin 25 Years", The Harris Poll, Harris Interactive Inc. March,2009.
50. Esther Kaplan, "Christian Right and Jewish Left", www.jewishcurrents. org/2005-july-kaplan.htm
51. Michael Horowitz, "New Intolerance Between Crescent and Cross", The Wall Street Journal, July5,1995.
52. John C. Green, "Religious Republicans:Hanging Tough with Bush", Pew Research Center, June 22,2007.
53. Clyde Wilcox, God's Warriors:The Christian Right in Twentieth-Century America, Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,1992, pp.220-229.
54. "Christian Coalition Sees 1998 as Crucial", Omaha World Herald,Virginia Pilot, June 14,1998.
55. Robert Reno, "Religion and Politics Didn't Mix", Omaha World Herald, Newsday, November 13,1998.
56. Jim Wallis, "A Network for Renewal", Sojourners, July-August 1995.
57. Bryan F. Le Beau, "The Political Mobilization of New Christian Right", http://are.as.wvu.edu\lebeaul.htm.
58. Lyman A. Kellstedt, "Evangelicals and Political Realignment", in Corwin E. Smidt, ed., Contemporary Evangelical Political Involvement:An Analysis and Assessment, Lanham, Md.:University Press of America,1994,pp99-118.
59. Lyman A Kellstedt, John C. Green, James L. Guth, and Corwin E. Smidt, "Religious Voting Blocs in the 1992 Election:The Year of the Evangelical?", Sociology of Religion, Vol.55,1994, pp.307-326.
60. Matthew C. Moen, "School Prayer and the Politics of Life-Style Concern", Social Science Quarterly, Vol.65,1994, pp.1065-1071.
61. David Goldstein, "Turnout a Key for Democrats", The Kansas City Star,1998, November 5.
62. "Christian Coalition Speakers Take Two Different Stances", New York Times, September 19,1998.
63. Susanne Scholz, "The Christian Right's Discourse on Gender and the Bible", Journal of Feminist Studies in Religion, Vol.21, no.1,2005.
64. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newsweek, no.10,2003,p.22-30.
65.关于基于信仰的动议(faith-based initiative),参见Stephen Monsma, "Faith-Based NGOs and the Government Embrace", in Elliott Abrams, (ed.), The Influence of Faith:Religious Groups and U.S. Foreign Policy, Rowman & Littlefield,2002, pp.203-219.
66. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newswee, no.10,2003,p.22-30.
67. George W. Bush, "Second Inaugural Address", January 20,2005
68. Matthew Rothschild, "Bush's Shameful War", The Progressive,20 March,2003.
69. Paul Kengor, God and George W. Bush:A Spiritual Life, Harper,2004, p.96
70. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newsweek, no.10,2003,p.22-30; Paul Kengor, God and George W. Bush:A Spiritual Life, Harper,2004, p.96
71. Howard Fineman, "Bush and God", Newsweek, no.10,2003, p.22-30.
72. Jeffrey Goldberg, "The Believer", New Yorker, February 13 and 20,2006, p.64.
73.对于美国人响应上帝的号召这一框架而言,布什及其他美国官员是用一种纯粹宗教语言来表述的,这一框架的宗教性来源于17世纪从英国及荷兰带到美国的新教千年主义。英国的清教徒原本相信英国将是新的以色列—启示录中所记载的千年主义和善恶大对决的大战场。随着1658年克伦威尔革命的失败,他们将希望转向清教徒聚集的新英格兰,乔纳森·爱德华兹在18世纪40年代指出“上帝创造的那个辉煌时刻的黎明或至少序曲将在美国降临和奏响。”(Reinhold Niebuhr, The Irony of American History, New York:Scribner,1951, pp.69)
74. David Frum, The Right Man:The Surprise Presidency of George W. Bush, New York:Random House,2003, pp116.
75. Rupert Cornwell, "Bush:God Order Me to Invade Iraq-President Revealed Reasons for War in Private Meeting", The Independent, October 7,2005.
76. Daniel YankeLovich, "Poll Positions What Amefcans Really Think about U.S. Foreign Policy", Foreign Affairs, September-October,2005.
1. William Schneider, " Israel's U.S. Defense Team", http://www. aei. org/ publications/pub ID.13842, filter. all/pub_detail. asp,2002-04-27.
2.陈超,“新保守主义与美国全球民主化战略”,《教学与研究》,2003年第9期,第58-63页。
3. Robert McMahon, "Christian Evangelicals and U.S. Foreign Policy", Backgrounder, August 23,2006.
4. "Will Views Toward Muslims and Islam Follow Historical Trends?",The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life, March 22,2006 Washington, D.C. http://pewforum.org/publications/surveys/Inter-Religious-Understanding.pdf.
5.关于布什总统政治语篇的启示录修辞参见Paul Kengor, God and George W. Bush, Harper Collins,2004; David Aikman, A Man of Faith:The Spiritual Journey of George W. Bush, W Publishing Group,2004; Stephen Mansfield, The Faith of George W. Bush, Penguin,2004.
6. Chip Berlet & Nikhil Aziz, "Culture, Religion, Apocalypse, and Middle East Foreign Policy", IRC Right Web, December 5,2003.
7.启示录、预言、启示都来自同一个希腊文字根,意思是揭露被掩盖的内容。启示录思维在美国根深蒂固,早期基督教定居者将美国的建国看作圣经预言的实现,他们深信他们所创建的国家需要抵御撒旦及其邪恶的盟友的颠覆图谋。帕特默斯的约翰是早期的基督教预言者,他的作品——约翰启示录形成了启示录一书,即圣经的最后一章。末世的一个表征是包括战争、疾病、饥荒、贪婪、道德沦丧在内的一系列苦难。19世纪中期,神学家约翰·耐尔森·达比宣称在末世来临时,虔诚的基督徒在灾难来临前升入天堂受到保护,邪恶受到惩罚,耶稣基督返回人间统治众生一千年——千年主义,前千年主义是美国宗教和政治行动主义的中心原则。
8. Chip Berlet, "Dances with Devils:How Apocalyptic and Millennialist Themes Influence Right Wing Scapegoating and Conspiracism", The Public Eye, vol.12, Fall 1998, revised version online at http://www.irc-online. org/apocalyptic/ Dances with_Devils_1.html.
9. Robert C. Fuller, Naming the Antichrist:The History of an American Obsession, Oxford University Press,1996, p.5.
10. Sara Diamond, Spiritual Warfare:The Politics of the Christian Right, Boston: South End Press,1989.
11. President Bush's State of the Union Address, February 2,2005
12. Ibid.
13. Amy E. Black, Douglas L. Kooperman & David K. Ryden, Of Little Faith:The Politics of George W. Bush's Faith-Based Initiatives, Washington, Georgetown University Press,2004, p.256.
14.阿米吉多顿原本指在海法附近的古老战场,对于一些新教福音派和基要派来说,启示录文本被解读为末世的时间表和脚本,结局是上帝与撒旦在位于以色列的阿米吉多顿平原的善恶大决斗。
15.按照达比的神学系统,目前神的安排将会以欣悦而结束,这时所有真正的信仰者将会加入天国中的基督,接下来是苦难,这时一个具有魔力、邪恶的反基督会出现在欧洲,夺取权力,在全世界实行暴政。七年后,基督和圣徒会返回在阿米吉多顿征服反基督及其军队,在耶路撒冷圣山上,基督会开始千年和平与正义的统治——千禧年。
16. Frances FitzGerald, "Reflections:The American Millennium," New Yorker, November 11,1985, pp.88-113.
17.这一预言内部逻辑有其不一致的地方,比如已经生活在圣地的基督徒的存在以及犹太人在最后赦免中的作用。关于这一点,法韦尔、拉海耶、罗伯逊及其他宗教右派领导人认为基督徒在圣地的存在不可能；至于犹太人,他们必须重生为基督徒来避免上帝的愤怒。根据末世论,其他人——佛教徒、穆斯林、印度教徒、无神论者等在善恶决斗中死亡。
18. John Cochran, "New Heaven, New Earth", CQ Weekly, October 17,2005
19. Gary M. Burge, "Christian Zionism, Evangelicals and Israel", www.hcef.org/ hcef/index.cfm/ID/159
20.宋兴无：“以巴冲突与美国的战略意图”,《联合早报》,2002年9月26日。
21. John Mearsheimer & Stephen Walt, "The Israel Lobby," London Review of Books Vol.28, No.6, March 23,2006, http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n06/mear01.html.
22.宋兴无：“以巴冲突与美国的战略意图”,《联合早报》,2002年9月26日。
23. John Mearsheimer & Stephen Walt, "The Israel Lobby", London Review of Books Vol.28, No.6, March 23,2006, http://www.lrb.co.uk/v28/n06 mear01_.html.
24-25.中新网1月4日电,综合报道,http://news.china.com.cn/chinanet/ 07news/china.cgi?docid
26.“基督教与犹太教的千年恩怨”,http://zhidao.baidu.com/question/ 36905995.html.
27.锡安山位于耶路撒冷,相传古犹太国王大卫在锡安山建犹太教圣殿,现遗址只有一段哭墙。锡安山被犹太人视为圣山,因此成为犹太人复国的象征。
28.温斯罗普曾经为马萨诸塞州殖民者屠杀土著居民而辩护,认为这是神的计划的一部分；19世纪美国神学家将美国的西进运动看作天定命运和上帝的意愿；1890年代美国入侵并吞并菲律宾,时任美国总统威廉·麦金利的理由是提升并使当地居民皈依基督。
29.美国为何偏袒以色列?以巴的冲突又由何而来?http://www.geocities.com/cssai2000/digest/israel_usa_conflict3.htm
30. Ibid.
31. Philip Lamy, Millennium Rage, New York:Plenum.1996, p.155.
32. Bob Woodward, State of Denial:Bush at War, Part III, New York, Simon & Schuster,2006, p.135.
33. "Religion and Politics:Contention and Consensus Growing Number Says Islam Encourages Violence Among Followers", Pew Research Center, http://peoplepress.org/reports/display.php3?ReportID=189.
34. Nancy Gibbs, "Apocalypse Now", Time, July 1,2002,40-49,
35.转引自Robert Bezilla (ed.), Religion in America, Princeton:Princeton Religion Research Center,1996,p.26.
36. PR Newswire, "Forty Percent of Americans Believe the World Will End as the BiblePredicts:A Battle Between Jesus and the Antichrist at Armageddon", Newsweek, October 25,1999.
37. David Gates, David J. Jefferson, and Anne Underwood, "The Pop Prophets", Newsweek, May 24,2004.
38. Rammy M. Haija, "The Armageddon Lobby:Dispensationalist Christian Zionism and the Shaping of U.S. Policy Towards Isreal-Palestine", Holy Land Studies, 5:(1)2006,p.75-76.
39.转引自'Fundamentalism in US military? "Times of India, February 19,2008
40. Charles Dyer, The Rise of Babylon:Sign of the End Times, Moody Publishers, Updated edition, January 15,2003
41.转引自'Rise Of The Righteous Army:Evangelical Movement Shapes Culture With Left Behind Series",60 Minutes/CBS News, February 8,2004.
42. Jerry Falwell, Interview with CBS News, June 8,2003.
43.转引自John Mearsheimer & Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1st edition, August 27,2007, pp.135.
44. "Expressing Solidarity with Israel in its Fight Against Terrorism", Congressional Record, Volume 148,820H9.
45.转引自Ann Norton, Leo Strauss and the Politics of American Empire,New Haven:Yale UniversityPress,2004,p 206.
46.转引自Roger Burbach, Jim Tarbell, Imperial Overstretch:George W. Bush and the Hubris of Empire, New York:Zed Books,2004, p.96.
47.转引自Brennan Linsley, "Thousands of Christians Support Israel in Visit Despite Fighting", USA Today,October 4,2004.
48.转引自David D. Kirkpatrick, "A Question of Theology or Policy", International Herald Tribune, November 14,2006.
49.黄福武：“从锡安到锡安主义——犹太人复国心路里程初探”,《山东大学学报》,2005年第5期,第43-52页。
50. Jimmy Carter, Palestine:Peace not Apartheid, Simon & Schuster; 1st edition November 14,2006, pp.54.
51.这些广告由圣地耶路撒冷研究所提供资助,这是一个宣传基督教锡安主义为主的福音派组织。
52. "What is AIPAC?", http://www.aipac.org.
53. Rodrigue Tremblay, "AIPAC, the Religious Right and American Foreign Policy", http://www.informationclearinghouse.info
54. Marshall Windmiller, "The Israel Lobby and The Peace Process----A Chronology", http://www.middleeast.org/launch/redirect.cgi?a=4&num=15
55.该机构是根据H.R.4230法案的要求设置,布什总统于2004年10月16日签署。
56.转引自Rodrigue Tremblay, "AIPAC, the Religious Right and American Foreign Policy", http://www.informationclearinghouse.info.
57. John Mearsheimer & Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1st edition, August 27,2007.
58. John Mearsheimer & Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and U.S. Foreign Policy, Farrar, Straus and Giroux,1st edition, August 27,2007, pp.63.
59. "Positive Atheism's Big Scary List of Jerry Falwell Quotations", http://www.positiveatheism.org/hist/quotes/foulwell.htm.
60. "Pat Robertson quotes", http://thinkexist.com/quotation/feminism_is_a_socialist-anti-family-political/217913.htm.
61. "Oral Roberts Quotes", http://thinkexist.com/quotes/oral_roberts.
62. "Michael Evans Sounds", http://www.michaelevanssounds.com/press.
63.转引自David M. Pearce, "Israel:God's People, God's Land", http://www.explorethebible.com/site/2006/08/israel_gods_people_gods_land_1.h tml.
64. "Speech of Rabbi David Saperstein", Center for American Progress, June 9,2004,转引自Kevin Phillips,.American Theocracy:The Peril and Politics of Radical Religion, Oil and Borrowed Money in the 21st Century, New York:Viking Press,2006, pp.216.
65. Dick Armey, "Hardball with Chris Matthews", CNBC,1st May 2002, 转引自 "Republican Party Leader calls for Ethnic Cleansing of Palestinians", Prime Time Talk Show, The Electronic Intifada.
66. "Born-Again Zionists", http://www.christian-zionism.org /articlesbody.asp?Title=Born-Again+Zionists.
67. "Armageddon Theology and Presidential Decision-Making:Religious Leaders' Concern", Transcript of a Press Conference for RELIGIOUS ISSUES'84, October 24,1984, at San Francisco Press Club, http://www.rumormillnews.com/ ARMAGEDDON%20THEOLOGY.htm
1. Walter Russell Mead, "God's Country", Foreign Affairs, vol.85, no. 5,2006,p.42.
2. Mujiahid Kamran, "The Dafur Problem", http://www.mfa.gov.sd/arabic/ The_Darfur_problem.doc.
3.“达尔富尔问题”,《中国价值百科》,http://www.chinavalue.net/wiki/List. aspx?cid=27&page=4.
4.余文胜,“苏丹达尔富尔危机的由来”,《国际资料信息》,2004年第9期,第39页。
5.转引自贺文萍,“苏丹达尔富尔问题与中国的作用”,《西亚非洲》,2007年第11期,第5-11页。
6.转引自王丰丰,“达尔富尔问题背后,气候变暖是“黑手?”,《新闻观察》2007年6月18日。
7.张晓文,《达尔富尔日记》,中国友谊出版公司,2008年,第37页。
8.同上。
9. Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing Godps Children:the Unlikely A lliance of Global Human R ights, New York:Rowman &Littlefield Publisher, INC.,2004, p.
145.
10. Tony Romm, "Carter says Darfur not Genocide", Oct 25,2007, http://media.www.theeagleonline.com
11.转引自Marc Lacey, "Tallying Darfur Terror:Guesswork with a Cause", International Herald Tribune,11 May,2005, http://www.iht. com/articles/2005/05/10/news/journal.php.
12. Nat Hentoff, "Doing business with Africa's Hitler", Saturday, October 21, 2006, http://www.16beavergroup.org/mtarchive/archives/002041.php
13.转引自刘澎：“宗教自由与布什主义——布什及美国政府关注宗教自由问题的动因”,2006年3月16日在社科院美国所的学术报告,http://ias.cass.cn/show/show_project_ls.asp?id=895
14. Madeleine Albright, The Mighty and the Almighty:Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs, New York:Harper Collins,2006, p.186.
15.习五一：“美国基督教福音派的崛起和美国的单极化战略”,《科学与无神论》,2005年第1期,第10-12页。
16. William J. Clinton, "Statement on Signing the International Religious Freedom Act of 1998", Administration of William J. Clinton, October 27,1998.
17.转引自刘澎：“宗教自由与布什主义——布什及美国政府关注宗教自由问题的动因”,2006年3月16日在社科院美国所的学术报告,http://ias.cass.cn/show/show_project_ls.asp?id=895.
18.参见"Wall Of Seperation", http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_of_separation)
19. "Presidential Proclamation Marking The Religious Freedom Day",www. whitehouse. gov/news/elease/2002/06/20020601-3.htm
20.“美国表示没有军事干预利比里亚内战的计划”,http://news.xinhuanet.com
21. Michael Clough, Free at Last?U.S. Policy toward Africa and the End of the Cold War, New York:Council on Foreign Relations Press,1992, pp.2.
22. Madeleine Albright, The Mighty and the Almighty:Reflections on America, God, and World Affairs, New York:Harper Collins,2006, p.186.
23. "U.S. Commission on International Religious Freedom", http://www.wwrn. org/article.php?idd=10335&sec=37&con=4.
24.转引自"In Sudan, There's a Genocide Going On", Khartoum, Sudan, Mar.17,2001 Zenit.org,转引自http://www.inaword.com/sudan.html.
25.转引自Francis M. Deng & Stephen Morrison, "U.S. Policy to End Sudan's War", Report of the CSIS Task Force on U.S.-Sudan Policy, February 2001, www.sudan.net/graphic/press/uspolicy.pdf
26.转引自Leslie Evans, "Acting Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs Surveys the Continent", African Studies Center, International Institute, UCLA,Dec 3,2003.
27.他在此后不久的一次堕机事故中身亡。
28.习五一,“美国基督教福音派的崛起和美国的单极化战略”《科学与无神论》,2005年第1期,第10-12页。
29. Madeleine Albright, Mighty and the Almighty:Reflections on America, God and the World, New York:Harper-Collins,2006, p.26.
30. Donald N. Clark, Living Dangerously in Korea:The Western Experience 1900-1950, Eastbridge,2003, pp.121-125; "Evangelicals in Korea Poised to Move North", Christian Science Monitor,11 June,2003.
31. Madeleine Albright, Mighty and the Almighty:Reflections on America, God and the World. New York:Harper-Collins,2006, p.138.
32. Paul E. Pierson, "The Rise of Christian Mission and Relief Agencies in The Influence of Faith", in Elliott Abrams (ed.), Religious Groups and US Foreign Policy, New York:Rowan & Littlefield,2001, p.160.
33. Allen D. Hertzke, Freeing God's Children:The Unlikely Alliance for Global Justice, Lanham, Md.:Rowman & Littlefield,2004.
34. "God Told Me to Invade Iraq, Bush Tells Palestinian Ministers", Elusive Peace:Israel and the Arabs, Oct,6,2005, BBC, http://www.bbc.co. uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2005/10_october/06/bush. shtml
35. Ron Suskind, "Without a Doubt", New York Times, October 17,2004.
36. Gary Scott Smith, Faith and the Presidency:From George Washington to George W. Bush, Oxford University Press, U.S.A.,2006, P.91.
37.转引自Jay Nordlinger, "About Sudan:what has been done? What can be done?", National Review,23 May 2005.
38. Richard Land, interview, "Frontline:The Jesus Factor", Public Broadcasting Service, November 18,2003, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jesus.
39. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone:The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York:Simon & Schusters,2000, p.162.
40. ibid.,p.66
41. Gary Scott Smith, Faith and the Presidency:From George Washington to George W. Bush, Oxford University Press, U.S.A.,2006, p.376.
42. Michael Horowitz, "New Intolerance Between Crescent and Cross", The Wall Street Journal, July5,1995.
43.转引自"In Sudan, There's a Genocide Going On", Khartoum, Sudan, Mar.17, 2001 Zenit.org,转引自http://www.inaword.com/sudan.html.
44. Michael Ignatief, "Human Rights as Politics and Human Rights as Idolatry",The Tanner Lectures on Human Values,Delivered at Princeton University April 4-7, 2000, http://www.tannerlectures.utah.edu/lectures/documents/Ignatieff_01.pdf
45.数据来自人权观察(http://www.humanrightwatch. org)和大赦国际(http://www.amnesty.org)网站的介绍。
46. Robert D. Putnam, Bowling Alone:The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York:Simon & Schusters,2000, p.159.
47. Allen D. Hertzke, "The Shame of Darfur", First Things, Oct.2005, pp.16-22
48. Ron Paul, "A War on Religion", http://www. lewrockwell. com/paul/paul148.html.
49. Nat Hentoff, "The Black Eagle Swoops Into SudanTuesday", New York Times, May 15,2001.
50.他的父亲比利·格雷厄姆曾成功劝说布什将毕生精力奉献给基督。
51. Farah Stockman, "Christian Lobbying Finds Success:Evangelicals Help to Steer Bush Efforts", Boston Globe, Oct.14,2004.
52.转引自"Powell Calls for Reconciliation in Sudan", The Washington Post, May 27,2001.
53. Michael Horowitz, "New Intolerance between the Crescent and Cross", Wall Street Journal, July 5,1995
54. "In Sudan, There's a Genocide Going On", Khartoum, Sudan, Mar.17,2001 Zenit.org,转引自http://www.inaword.com/sudan.html.
55. Eric Reeves, "A Divestment Campaign to Stop Genocide in Darfur", Wednesday, December 15,2004, http://www.sudanreeves.org/Articlel4.html.
56. Allen D. Hertzke, "The Shame of Darfur", First Things, Oct.2005, pp.16-22
57. "Pressure on Sudan, Editorial", New York Times, July 22,2001, http://www.nytimes.com/2001/07/22/opinion/pressure-on-sudan.html
58. "Sudan, Oil, and Human Rights", Human Rights Watch, p.478,转引自www.hrw.org/reports/2003/sudan 1103/sudanprint.pdf.
59. George W. Bush, "Remarks Announcing the Appointment of John Danforth as Special Envoy for Peace to Sudan",http://www.presidency.ucsb. edu/ws/index.php?pid=7340935.
60. Gary Scott Smith, Faith and the Presidency:From George Washington to George W. Bush, Oxford University Press, USA,2006,pp.189-190.
61. Laurie Goodstein, "Inaugural Pastor's Youthful Trajectory Was Like Bush's", NewYork Times, January 20,2001.
62. Richard Land, interview, "Frontline:The Jesus Factor", Public Broadcasting Service, November 18,2003, www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/jesus.
63. Michael Gerson, "A New Faith-Based Agenda", Newsweek, Vol.13, November 2006.
64. "Natioanl Energy Policy", National Energy Policy Development Group, May 2001.
65. "Global Trends 2015", U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, Natioanl Security Council, December 2000, p.50.
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